一、要认真了解cb喜欢考的历史话题亚太考场双篇论述联邦政体(confederation)。作者分别是Patrick Henry和Edmond Pendleton.认认真真刷过题的同学对这类文章不会陌生。翻一下做过的题:
khan level2双篇,两篇作者也在论述federal plan好不好。第一句话是:our object has been all along, to reform our federal system, and to strengthen our governments, but a new object now presents.
level 3单篇,federalist paper no. 5。作者John Jay表示支持。
level 3 双篇,Patrick Henry和James Madison在关于articles of confederation是否该继续执行吵架。
除了政治体制和宪法改革,与英国历史关系恶劣,追求平等也是cb喜欢的话题。比如在官方指南第四套题的历史篇里,就截选了爱尔兰政治家Edmund Burke《对法国大革命的反思》;2016年10月亚太考区选取的是Thomas Paine在著名的《常识》一书中对独立战争必要性的论述;2016年11月亚太考区是湖畔诗人Coleridge早年对法国大革命的看法,表达他的终极目的是追求平等; 紧接着是12月亚太考区John Adams(美国第二任总统)给其爱妻的私人书信(两封),依然在滔滔不绝地讲述美国独立战争。
要了解常考的几个话题的历史背景,重要概念。比如文章反复提到confederation和federal,是什么涵义,二者又有什么区别。否则只会越读越懵。
我对所有历史文章的话题进行了一个简单梳理,发现cb比较喜欢考以下话题:
1、constitution (federal&antifederal)
2、women’s rights
3、slavery
4、economy (north&south)
5、foreign policy
6、workers’ condition and strikes
7、war and independence
8、environment
平权运动一直都是非常热门的话题,从古至今。我们会在之后的文章中再进行详尽讲解;环保也是一个重要话题,;外交政策和经济发展,以及随之而来的工人罢工等社会问题也会是潜在选项。这些我们都要有所准备。
先说说这次亚太考题,美国宪法Constitution的那些东西。
在奋力争取殖民地独立,摆脱英国控制的那段时间,“美国”并没有体系完善的法律系统。这场战争从1775年正式开打,至1776年底,Thomas Jefferson刚刚忙活完Declaration of Independence,一个叫John Dickinson的人就提出要将当时的13个殖民地变成一个统一的国家,把各个州的宪法汇总起来,制订出一个统一的规则。经过激烈商讨,终于在1777年形成了Articles of Confederation(邦联条例)。这一年正逢战争酣处,Saratoga一战扭转了美国战争颓势,国家又有了个像样的central government,非常扬眉吐气了。
但这时的邦联条例和后来的1787年宪法不同:
The 13 states intended the central government to be weak—and it was. The congress had no taxing power and could only request that the states donate money for national needs. (amsco)
邦联(confederacy)和联邦(federal)是背道而驰的两个方向,邦联条例暴露出了国家致命的弱点:
1、没钱。;
2、没权。调节不了州之间的纷争。
这里面表达了一部分人的意愿,。,就是害怕重蹈欧洲国家的覆辙。这部分人一再强调民主,强调state’s and individual’s rights,认为这才是革命的意义。当然,他们也会给自己找些别的原因,比如:
可汗阅读level2双篇对比,都论述了反对federal plan的原因:
作者一说:Different laws, customs, and opinions exist in the different states, which by a uniform system of laws would be unreasonably invaded.
作者二说:Large and consolidated empires may indeed dazzle the eyes of a distant spectator with theirsplendour, but if examined more nearly are always found to be full of misery. The reason is obvious. In large states the same principles of legislation will not apply to all the parts.
两个作者观点出奇地一致:一个宪法满足不了我们多变的风格。
于是《邦联条例》就这样苟延残喘地维持着一个刚刚获得独立的国家。不出所料,没过多久,国家权力的削弱带来了更加严重的问题:
Reduced foreign trade and limited credit due to nonpayment of war debts contributed to widespread economic depression. The inability to levy national taxes and the printing of worthless paper money by many states added to the problems. In addition, the 13 states treated one another with suspicion and competed for economic advantage. They placed tariffs and other restrictions on the movement of goods across state lines. A number of states also entered into boundary disputes that increased interstate rivalry and tension. (amsco)
刚打完胜仗结果却背了一屁股债,各个州之间互相虎视眈眈谁也不服谁,,处境十分尴尬。
可汗阅读level3那篇Federalist Paper No. 5,请大家仔细体会:
Whenever, and from whatever causes, it might happen, and happen it would, that any one of these nations or confederacies should rise on the scale of political importance much above the degree of her neighbors, that moment would those neighbors behold her with envy and with fear. Both those passions would lead them to countenance, if not to promote, whatever might promise to diminish her importance; and would also restrain them from measures calculated to advance or even to secure her prosperity.
更糟糕的是,1786年的夏天,马塞诸塞州一位叫Daniel Shays的农民和他的大兄弟们,因为忍受不了本州的繁重税收,。,但也让George Washington(美国第一任总统)和他的支持者们拍了大腿要改革宪法体制。
我们看看后来他们都改了些啥:
1、一院制(unicameral)变两院制(bicameral), congress从此分为Senate (参议院)和House of Representatives),从各个州选拔议员的数量也是经过great compromise才同时安抚了大州和小州
2、三权分立,legislative, executive and judicial branch. (参照下图)
3、国会可以levy taxes, declare war,regulate interstate commerce (总之以前没有的都要加上)
当然,改变的不只这一点点,但这三点是我们理解这类文章的关键。federal plan终于取得了胜利,甚至在建国初期那十几年时间里,。(所以很多历史书里把建国至1800年这段时期叫做the era of Federalist)直到John Adams黯然离职,Thomas Jefferson这个anti-federalist的死忠上台,国家也不曾把大权交出。之后数百年几经变动也没有从根本上撼动founding fathers当初定下来的规矩。
了解了这段时期的历史,我就能把文章全看懂题全做对吗?很多人发现好像也不一定啊。
我们在阅读时往往有一个误区,就是对作者用词的意图视而不见。下面是提高阅读能力的第二个要点(敲黑板)
二、对关键词的理解要与作者达成共识
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