各个逻辑错误的攻击方法和语言 1.Survey/Study： (1)Procedure
A. Selective sample
B. Quantity of the sample
Unless the surveyors sampled a sufficient number of and did so randomly across the entire spectrum, the survey results are not reliable to gauge_____ generally. The number of respondents/samples in itself does not ensure representativeness. For example, if the sample included only , then the results would no doubt suggest . Or if _____, (1200) would account for only a little percentage, which would renders the result of the survey meaningless.
(2)Result of the survey
A. Do the statistics make any meaningfullness
B. Are the statistics misleadingly vague ①攻击“无相对比值”The argument tells us that “many” (a number of ) _____. However, the speaker fails to indicate the percentage of _____, so this evidence is far too vague to be meaningful. ②攻击“无绝对数值”
The author fails to provide information regarding the absolute number of ____.
C. Respondents
The respondents must be statistically significant in number and representative of the overall_____.
(3)Who conducted the survey
The surveyor should be nonaligned / cross-becher.
(4)When was the survey conducted 调查时间与所得结果够接近否
A threshold problem is that the editorial neglects to indicate how recently he survey was actually conducted. When samples are used to make general claims about a particular group, the samples should be close enough in time to the generalization. All we know in this editorial is that the survey was recently published. The less recent the survey itself, the less reliable the results to indicate current interest levels.
2.Sufficient Evidence and Necessary Condition (1)Sufficient Evidence
a. The argument assumes too hastily that ____will necessarily result in the behavior that the argument
predicts. Perhaps,_____. Moreover,____.
b. The fact that A is not sufficient for the prediction that B .
(2)Necessary Condition
The editor’s recommendation depends on the assumption that no factors other than A caused B . However, common sense informs me that this assumption is a poor one. A myriad of other factors, including ___or ____, might just as likely be the cause of B . To be specific,_____. Without ruling out these and other possible causes, the editor cannot justifiably conclude that only by ____ can____.
3.Cause and Effect Fallacies (1) Non sequitur 无因果
The arguer fails to establish the causal relationship between the fact that ____and the claim that____. This argument is unacceptable unless there is compelling evidence to support the connection between these two events. Perhaps, for example, ____results from_____.
(2) Post hoc, ergo proper hoc (标志词after this, therefore because of this) 时序因果
Based on the fact that ____ occurred after _____, the editor infers that ____should be responsible for _____. However, the sequence of these events, in itself, does not suffice to prove that earlier development caused the later one. It might have resulted from some other events instead: ____________----to just a few possibilities. Without ruling out scenarios such as these, the editor cannot establish a cause-and-effect relationship between______ and _______ upon which editor’s the recommendation depends.
(3) Concurrence同时性因果关系错误(标志词with, under, as , meanwhile, at the same time) 4题、11题、15题、27题
.
It is possible that the mayor has confused cause with effect respecting the recent developments in Ocean View. Perhaps A was a response to B. Since the mayor has failed to account for this possibility, the claim that _____ is completely unwarranted.
4.Changing Scope Fallacies 范围变化类错误 (1)Different concepts 差异类 35
A threshold problem involves the definition of A . The arguer fails to define this critical term. If A is defined as B , then how C , is irrelevant to whether____. In short, without a clear definition of A , it is impossible to assess the strength of the argument.
(2)What is true for a member is also true for the group
标志词 national, nationwide, statewide, throughout, overall 13 14 26 43
The argument resets on the assumption that 个体案例 typify nationwide 整体情况. If this is not the case, then it is entirely possible that 在另一个地方，上述个案的结果不会发生相同的情况 Thus, lacking more marketing information about ____ nationwide, it is difficult to assess the merit of the memo’s recommendation.
(3)Assuming that characteristics of a group apply to each group member
One problem with the argument is that it assumes that the nationwide (characteristics of a group apply to every member of that group) statistics about _____ applies equally to 个体成员， Yet this might not be the case, for a variety of possible reasons. Perhaps ______; or perhaps ______ . Without ruling out such possibilities, the author cannot justifiably conclude that _____. (4)Average
5.Incomplete Thought 考虑不全面
(1)Failing to weigh the advantage and disadvantage thoroughly 7，9,40
In addition, the author fails to consider the possible negative impacts brought about by . (2)Profit 2,13 profitable，33,34
The author’ conclusion that _____ is unwarranted. Profit is factor of not only revenue, but also costs. It’s entirely possible that the costs of_________ , or other costs associated with ________, will offset, even outweigh the revenue. Besides, a myriad of other possible occurrence, such as unfavorable economic conditions, might prevent ______ from being as profitable in the foreseeable futures as the argument predicts.
6.All things remain unchanged over time
(1)Past conditions remain unchanged in the present and future( last year, ten years ago, trend, tendency) 19,31,38
The author claims that ______, because _____ . The author assumes without justification that the background conditions have remained the same at different time. The assumption is unwarranted because things rarely remain the same over extended periods of time. There are likely all kinds of difference between A and B . For example, A_______; however, B______. Any of these scenarios, if true, would serve to undermine the claim that ______
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