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剑桥雅思12阅读test6passage1 The risks agriculture faces in developing countries
Synthesis of an online debate*
A Two things distinguish food production from all other productive activities: first, every single person needs food each day and has a right to it; and second, it is hugely dependent on nature. These two unique aspects, one political, the other natural, make food production highly vulnerable and different from any other business. At the same time, cultural values are highly entrenched in food and agricultural systems worldwide.
B Farmers everywhere face major risks, including extreme weather, long-term climate change, and price volatility in input and product markets. However, smallholder farmers in developing countries must in addition deal with adverse environments, both natural, in terms of soil quality, rainfall, etc., and human, in terms of infrastructure, financial systems, markets, knowledge and technology. Counter-intuitively, hunger is prevalent among many smallholder farmers in the developing world.
C Participants in the online debate argued that our biggest challenge is to address the underlying causes of the agricultural system’s inability to ensure sufficient food for all, and they identified as drivers of this problem our dependency on fossil fuels and unsupportive government policies.
D On the question of mitigating the risks farmers face, most essayists called for greater state intervention. In his essay, Kanayo F. Nwanze, President of the International Fund for Agricultural Development, argued that governments can significantly reduce risks for farmers by providing basic services like roads to get produce more efficiently to markets, or water and food storage facilities to reduce losses. Sophia Murphy, senior advisor to the Institute forAgriculture and Trade Policy, suggested that the procurement and holding of stocks by governments can also help mitigate wild swings in food prices by alleviating uncertainties about market supply.
E Shenggen Fan, Director General of the International Food Policy Research Institute, held up social safety nets and public welfare programmes in Ethiopia, Brazil and Mexico as valuable ways to address poverty among farming families and reduce their vulnerability toagriculture shocks. However, some commentators responded that cash transfers to poor families do not necessarily translate into increased food security, as these programmes do not always strengthen food production or raise incomes. Regarding state subsidies foragriculture, Rokeya Kabir, Executive Director of Bangladesh Nari Progati Sangha, commented in her essay that these ‘have not compensated for the stranglehold exercised by private traders. In fact, studies show that sixty percent of beneficiaries of subsidies are not poor, but rich landowners and non-farmer traders.’
F Nwanze, Murphy and Fan argued that private risk management tools, like private insurance,commodity futures markets, and rural finance can help small-scale producers mitigate risk and allow for investment in improvements. Kabir warned that financial support schemes often encourage the adoption of high-input agricultural practices, which in the medium term may raise production costs beyond the value of their harvests. Murphy noted that when futures markets become excessively financialised they can contribute to short-term price volatility, which increases farmers’ food insecurity. Many participants and commentators emphasised that greater transparency in markets is needed to mitigate the impact of volatility, and make evident whether adequate stocks and supplies are available. Others contended thatagribusiness companies should be held responsible for paying for negative side effects.
G Many essayists mentioned climate change and its consequences for small-scaleagriculture. Fan explained that ‘in addition to reducing crop yields, climate change increases the magnitude and the frequency of extreme weather events, which increase smallholdervulnerability.’ The growing unpredictability of weather patterns increases farmers’ difficulty in managing weather-related risks. According to this author, one solution would be to develop crop varieties that are more resilient to new climate trends and extreme weather patterns.Accordingly, Pat Mooney, co-founder and executive director of the ETC Group, suggested that ‘if we are to survive climate change, we must adopt policies that let peasants diversify the plant and animal species and varieties/breeds that make up our menus.’
H Some participating authors and commentators argued in favour of community-based andautonomous risk management strategies through collective action groups, co-operatives or producers’ groups. Such groups enhance market opportunities for small-scale producers, reduce marketing costs and synchronise buying and selling with seasonal price conditions.According to Murphy, ‘collective action offers an important way for farmers to strengthen their political and economic bargaining power, and to reduce their business risks.’ One commentator, Giel Ton, warned that collective action does not come as a free good. It takes time, effort and money to organise, build trust and to experiment. Others, like Marcel Vernooij and Marcel Beukeboom, suggested that in order to ‘apply what we already know’, all stakeholders, including business, government, scientists and civil society, must work together, starting at the beginning of the value chain.
I Some participants explained that market price volatility is often worsened by the presence ofintermediary purchasers who, taking advantage of farmers’ vulnerability, dictate prices.One commentator suggested farmers can gain greater control over prices and minimise price volatility by selling directly to consumers. Similarly, Sonali Bisht, founder and advisor to the Institute of Himalayan Environmental Research and Education (INHERE), India, wrote that community-supported agriculture, where consumers invest in local farmers by subscription and guarantee producers a fair price, is a risk-sharing model worth more attention. Direct food distribution systems not only encourage small-scale agriculture but also give consumers more control over the food they consume, she wrote.
Question 1-3
阅读解析：1. 定位词： characteristics, only, food production文中对应点：A段首句：Two things distinguish food production from all other productive activities.题目解析：题干中提到只应用到粮食生产的特征，这与文章A段首句含义一致，因此本题答案为A。
2. 定位词：challenges, only by farmers, certain parts of the world文中对应点：B段前2句Farmers everywhere face major risks, including...However, smallholder farmers in developing countries must in addition deal with...题目解析：B段首句提出了major risks, 第二句紧接着指出farmers in developing countries，对应题目中的challenges, only by farmers, certain parts of the world，因此本题答案为B。
3. 定位词：difficulties, co-operation between farmers文中对应点：H段Some participating authors and commentators argued in favour of ...through collective action groups, co-operatives or producers’ groups. ...One commentator, Giel Ton, warned that collective action does not come as a free good. It takes time, effort and money to organise, build trust and to experiment.题目解析：H段中collective action groups, co-operatives or producers’ groups 对应题干中co-operation between farmers, H段中Giel Ton警告的部分为difficulties。
Question 4-9
正确答案：4. D5. B6. C7. G8. B9. A阅读解析：4. 定位词： financial assistance, not always go to the farmers文中对应点：E段中Rokeya KabirRokeya Kabir, Executive Director of..., commented in her essay that these “have not compensated for the stranglehold exercised by private trader. In fact, studies show that sixty percent of beneficiaries of subsidies are not poor, but rich landowners and non-farmer traders.”题目解析：题干中的financial assistance对应文中的subsidies津贴，题干中not always go the farmers对应文中sixty percent of beneficiaries of subsidies are not poor, but rich landowners and non-farmer traders。故答案为D。
5. 定位词：farmers, collaborating as a group文中对应点: H段中 Sophia MurphyAccording to Murphy, collective action offers an important way for farmers to strengthen their political and economic bargaining power, and to reduce their business risks.题目解析： 题干中collective as a group对应文中 collective action，题干中benefit from 对应文中offers an important way for farmers to strengthen their political and economic bargaining power, and to reduce their business risks.故答案为B。
6. 定位词：financial assistance, improve standard of living of farmers文中对应点：E段中Shenggen Fan Shenggen Fan, Director General of the International Food Policy Research Institute, held up social safety nets and public welfare programme in Ethiopia, Brazil and Mexico as valuable ways to address poverty among farming faimilies and reduce their vulnerability to agriculture shocks.题目解析： 原文中held up social safety nets and public welfare programme in Ethiopia, Brazil and Mexico as valuable ways to address poverty among farming families and reduce their vulnerability to agriculture shocks.对应题干中financial assistance, improve standard of living of farmers, 故答案为C。
7. 定位词：financial input by the same individuals who buy from them文中对应点： I段中Sonali BishtSonali Bishit,...,wrote that community-supported agriculture, where consumers invest in local farmers by subscription and guarrantee producers a fair price, is a risk-sharing model worth more attention.题目解析：文章中consumers invest in local farmers by subscription and guarrantee producers a fair price对应题干中的financial input by the same individuals who buy from them，故答案为G。
8. 定位词：governments，reduce variation in prices文中对应点：D段中Sophia MurphySophia Murphy, ..., suggested that the procurement and holding of stocks by governments can also help mitigate wild swings in food prices by alleviating uncertainties about markt supply.题目解析：文章中governments，help mitigate wild swings in food prices对应题干中governments，reduce variation in prices，故答案为B。
9. 定位词：infrastructure, have a major impact on risk for farmers文中对应点：D段中Kanayo F. NwanzeKanayo F. Nwanze,..., argued that governments can significantly reduce risks for farmers by providing basic services like roads to get produce more efficiently to markets, or water and food storage facilities to reduce losses.题目解析：文章中 reduce risks for farmers by providing basic services like roads 对应题干中infrastructure, have a major impact on risk for farmers， 故答案为A。
Question 10-11
正确答案：DE阅读解析：10. 定位词：two problems, farmers with small farms，developing countries 文中对应点：B段 B段首句Farmers everywhere face major risks, including extreme weather, long-term climate change, and price volatility in input and product markets.对应D选项the effects of changing weather patterns.故正确答案为D,
11.B段倒数第4行and human, in terms of infrastructure, financial systems, markets, knowledge and technology中markets对应题干E选项 having to sell their goods to intermediary buyers. 故正确答案为E。
Question 12-13
正确答案：CD阅读解析：12. 定位词：two actions, improving conditions for farmers 文中对应点：H段首句， I段Sonali Bishit H段中首句提到，Some participating authors and commentators argued in favor of community-based and autonomous risk management strategies through collective action groups, co-operative or producers’ groups.对应C选项organising co-operation between a wide range of interested parties,故C为正确答案。
13. I段中Sonali Bishit,...,wrote that community-supported agriculture, where consumers invest in local farmers by subscription and guarrantee producers a fair price, is a risk- sharing model worth more attention.对应D选项making customers aware of the reasons for changing food prices, 故D为正确答案。
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