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托福阅读原文
Trade was the mainstay of the urban economy in the Middle East, as caravans negotiated thesurrounding desert, restricted only by access to water and by mountain ranges. This has beenso since ancient times, partly due to the geology of the area, which is mostly limestone andsandstone, with few deposits of metallic ore and other useful materials Ancient demands forobsidian (a black volcanic rock useful for making mirrors and tools) led to trade with Armeniato the north, while jade for cutting tools was brought from Turkistan, and the precious stonelapis lazuli was imported from Afghanistan. One can trace such expeditions back to ancientSumeria, the earliest known Middle Eastern civilization. Records show merchant caravans andtrading posts set up by the Sumerians in the surrounding mountains and deserts of Persia andArabia, where they traded grain for raw materials, such as timber and stones, as well as formetals and gems.
Reliance on trade had several important consequences. Production was generally in the hands ofskilled individual artisans doing piecework under the tutelage of a master who was also the shopowner. In these shops differences of rank were blurred as artisans and masters labored sideby side in the same modest establishment, were usually members of the same guild andreligious sect, lived in the same neighborhoods, and often had assumed (or real) kinshiprelationships. The worker was bound to the master by a mutual contract that either one couldrepudiate, and the relationship was conceptualized as one of partnership.
This mode of craft production favored the growth of self-governing and ideologically egalitariancraft guilds everywhere in the Middle Eastern city. These were essentially professionalassociations that provided for the mutual aid and protection of their members, and allowed forthe maintenance of professional standards. The growth of independent guilds wasfurthered by the fact that surplus was not a result of domestic craft production but resultedprimarily from international trading; the government left working people to govern themselves,much as shepherds of tribal confederacies were left alone by their leaders. In the multiplicity ofsmall-scale local egalitarian or quasi-egalitarian organizations for fellowship, worship, andproduction that flourished in this laissez-faire environment, individuals could interact with oneanother within a community of harmony and ideological equality, following their own popularlyelected leaders and governing themselves by shared consensus while minimizing distinctions ofwealth and power.
The mercantile economy was also characterized by a peculiar moral stance that is typical ofpeople who live by trade—an attitude that is individualistic, calculating, risk taking, and adaptiveto circumstances. As among tribespeople, personal relationships and a careful weighing ofcharacter have always been crucial in a mercantile economy with little regulation, where one'sword is one's bond and where informal ties of trust cement together an international tradenetwork. Nor have merchants and artisans ever had much tolerance for aristocraticprofessions of moral superiority, favoring instead an egalitarian ethic of the open market,where steady hard work, the loyalty of one's fellows, and ntrepreneurial skill make all thedifference. And, like the pastoralists, Middle Eastern merchants and artisans unhappy with theirenvironment could simply pack up and leave for greener pastures—an act of self-assertionwholly impossible in most other civilizations throughout history.
Dependence on long-distance trade also meant that the great empires of the Middle East werebuilt both literally and figuratively on shifting sand. The central state, though often very richand very populous, was intrinsically fragile, since the development of new international traderoutes could undermine the monetary base and erode state power, as occurred whenEuropean seafarers circumvented Middle Eastern merchants after Vasco da Gama's voyagearound Africa in the late fifteenth century opened up a southern route. The ecology of theregion also permitted armed predators to prowl the surrounding barrens, which were almostimpossible for a state to control. Peripheral peoples therefore had a great advantage in theirdealings with the center, making government authority insecure and anxious.
托福阅读试题
1.According to paragraph 1, why has trade been so important throughout the historyof the Middle East
A.The rare and valuable metals and stones found in Middle Eastern deserts have always beenin high demand in surrounding areas.
B.Growing conditions throughout the Middle East are generally poor, forcing Middle Easternpeople to depend on imported grain.
C.Many useful and decorative raw materials cannot be found naturally in the Middle East butare available from neighboring regions.
D.Frequent travel, due to limited water supplies in the Middle East, created many opportunitiesfor trade with neighboring societies.
2.The word “repudiate” in the passage (paragraph 2) is closest in meaning to
A.respect
B.reject
C.review
D.revise
3.According to paragraph 2, how did Middle Eastern shop owners treat their workers?
A.Workers were ranked according to their skill level, with the most-experienced artisansbecoming partial owners of the shop.
B.Shop owners treated different workers differently depending on how much the workers had incommon with their masters.
C.Workers were bound to their masters by unbreakable contracts that strictly defined theterms of their partnership.
D.The shop owner worked alongside the workers and often considered them partner andmembers of the family.
4.The author includes the information that surplus was not a result of domestic craftproduction but resulted primarily from international trading (in passage 3) in order to
A.support the claim that the mode of production made possible by the craft guilds w verygood for trade
B.contrast the economic base of the city government with that of the tribal confederacies
C.provide a reason why the government allowed the guilds to be self-controlled
D.suggest that the government was missing out on a valuable opportunity to tax the guilds
5.According to paragraph 3, all of the following are true of the Middle Eastern craftguilds EXCEPT:
A.The guilds were created to support workers and to uphold principles of high-quality craftproduction.
B.Each guild was very large and included members from a broad geographic area.
C.The leaders of the guilds were chosen by popular vote.
D.All guild members were treated as equals.
6.The word “consensus” in the passage (paragraph 3) is closest in meaning to
A.authority
B.responsibility
C.custom
D.agreement
7.According to paragraph 4, which of the following was NOT necessary for success inthemercantile economy?
A.Good business sense
B.Reliable associates
C.Family wealth
D.Constant effort
8.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in thehighlighted sentence in paragraph 4? Incorrect choices change the meaning inimportant ways or leave out essential information.
A.Tribes people were comfortable forming personal relationships with merchants, who, likethem, were bound by their promises to one another.
B.Because trade was not formally regulated, merchants were careful about whom they trustedand often conducted business with people they knew personally.
C.While trade among merchants relied somewhat on regulation, among tribes people trade wasbased on personal relationships and careful character evaluation.
D.Because tribes people were bound only by their promises to one another, personalrelationships were formed only after careful weighing of character.
9.The word “ethic” in the passage (paragraph 4) is closest in meaning to
A.set of moral principles
B.division of labor
C.economic system
D.test of character
10.According to paragraph 4, what choice did Middle Eastern merchants and artisanshave that many other people have not had?
A.If they were unhappy in the mercantile environment, they could draw on personalconnections to find a different kind of work.
B.They were allowed to assert their opinions without having to listen to aristocratic professionsof moral superiority.
C.Following the example of the pastoralists, they could demand, and receive, better workingconditions.
D.If they didn't like their environment, they could move somewhere else.
11.The word “intrinsically” in the passage (paragraph 5) is closest in meaning to
A.fundamentally
B.surprisingly
C.consequently
D.particularly
12.In paragraph 5, why does the author mention the new trade route opened up byVasco da Gama's fifteenth century voyage around Africa?
A.To provide evidence that European seafarers took every opportunity to bypass MiddleEastern merchants
B.To present an instance in which Middle Eastern states lost money and power because of theirreliance on long-distance trade
C.To argue this new route became necessary when European seafarers wanted to avoid MiddleEastern states whose central power had begun to erode
D.To explain how da Gama helped European traders avoid the dangerous predators prowlingthe areas surrounding Middle Eastern cities
13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could beadded to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? For one thing, it created ademand for finished goods to be sold both locally and abroad.
Paragraph2: Reliance on trade had several important consequences. ■【A】Production wasgenerally in the hands of skilled individual artisans doing piecework under the tutelage of amaster who was also the shop owner. ■【B】In these shops differences of rank were blurredas artisans and masters labored side by side in the same modest establishment, were usuallymembers of the same guild and religious sect, lived in the same neighborhoods, and often hadassumed (or real) kinship relationships. ■【C】The worker was bound to the master by amutual contract that either one could repudiate, and the relationship was conceptualized asone of partnership. ■【D】
14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage isprovided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices thatexpress the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in thesummary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or areminor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.
Since ancient times. reliance on trade has shaped the culture and organizational structure ofMiddle Eastern societies.
A.Persian and Arabian merchants traveled great distances to sell their finished goods at themarketplaces of ancient Sumeria.
B.Revenue from trade was unevenly distributed, causing Middle Eastern societies to becharacterized by growing distinctions in wealth and power.
C.Qualities that were valued in the mercantile economy included individualism, hard work,loyalty, and the willingness to take risks.
D.As production increased, centralized control over production also increased, leading in turnto more-centralized control over fellowship and worship.
E.Crafts were produced by skilled artisans working in close, egalitarian relationships with theirmasters and other fellow guild members.
F.The stability of Middle Eastern governments was threatened by their lack of control overinternational trade patterns and over their own peripheral territories.
托福阅读答案
1.问trade为什么主要，这段第一句就说是mainstay，第二句就给出了原因，说他们没有这个没有那个，所以答案是C。A说中东有material，明显与原文说反;B的中东很穷和D的frequent travel原文都没说。
2.repudiate与……断绝关系，驳斥，所以reject正确。原句说师徒之间是一种契约关系，这个契约任意一方都可以怎么样，下一句又说是一种伙伴关系，也就是没有强制性，所以答案是任何一方都可以撕毁，所以答案是reject。respect和review都不靠谱;revise单纯的改变也不是作者的意思。
3.以shop owners做关键词定位至第二句，但第二句没有回答问题，所以往后看，后一句说老板和工人之间的界限被blur模糊了，而且他们同吃同住一起工作，所以答案是D。A的workers rank原文没说;B说对不同工人态度不同，与原文相反;C的unbreakable contract与最后一句相反。
4.修辞目的题，先看修辞点所在句子，只是一个例子，放弃;往前看，说有行业协会互助互惠，但这明显也还是一个例子，所以看本段中心句，说这种生产方式倾向于促进自律平等的同业协会的发展，所以答案是C。
5.EXCEPT题，排除法。A的support workers和uphold principles做关键词定位至第二句，原文的mutualaid and protection等于support workers，maintaneance of professional standards等于upholdprinciples，A正确，不选;B的geographic area原文没有对应点，错，选;C的vote做关键词定位至最后一句，正确，不选;D的equals做关键词定位至最后一句，正确，不选。
6.consensus合约，同意，协定，所以D的agreement正确。原句说人与人之间的关系非常和谐，他们听他们领导的话，通过什么实现自律并尽量减小贫富差距，减小差距就是为了求得某种一致，所以答案是agreement。A权威，B责任，C习惯，都不靠谱。
7.EXCEPT题，排除法。A与倒数第二句的entrepreneurial skill同义替换，正确，不选;B与倒数第二句的loyalty of one’s fellow同义替换，正确，不选;C在原文中无对应点，错，选;D与倒数第二句的steadyhard work同义替换，正确，不选。
8.原句的结构是在什么什么人当中，什么和什么很重要，在什么什么环境下。所以B正确。A混淆原文概念，原文说在当时的环境下只能靠promise形成商业网络，人们和认识的人做生意，不是人们靠promise做生意;C错，原文说没有regulation，C说反;D错，因为only原文从来没说过。
9.ethic道德规范，伦理，所以A正确。原文说商人和工匠们不能忍受moral superiority，更喜欢openmarket的什么，既然不喜欢moral superiority，那么他们喜欢的东西也应该跟道德有关，所以答案是A，而B劳力分工C经济体系和D性格测试完全不靠谱。
10.以many other people做关键词定位至最后一句，说如果不满意当地的商业环境，中东商人会像游牧民族一样迁移到其他地方，这是其他人做不到的，所以答案是D。
11.intrinsically本质的，内部的，固有的，所以答案A正确。原句说尽管中部的国家很富裕而且人口稠密，但他们是怎么样脆弱的，由于新的国际贸易路线可以决定金融资本所在的地方，并且能够侵蚀国家的力量，都能侵蚀了，所以应该是脆弱的，但前文又说人口密集并且富裕，所以这些都是表象，所以答案是A的fundamentallly基础;B吃惊C结果D特别都没反应这种内外的差别，所以都不对。
12.修辞目的题，先把本句读清楚，说新的国际贸易路线可以决定金融资本所在的地方，并且能够侵蚀国家的力量，接着就说就像达伽马发现了新航路之后欧洲人绕过了中东，所以说达伽马的事儿是为了证明航线的发现能够削弱国家的力量，所以答案是B。
13.两个过渡点，连词for one thing和名词finished goods，既然是for one thing，就应该放在比较靠前的位置上，所以A或者B有可能，而放在A正好对应之前的several important consequences;而且finishedgoods与原文当中的production对应，所以A正确。
14.Persian选项是原文第一段中的一个细节，不选;Revenue选项与原文第三段最后一句说反，是贫富差距缩小，不是扩大，不选;Qualities选项对应第四段，正确;As选项与原文第三段第一句相反，不选;Crafts选项对应原文第二段和第三段的最后一句，正确;The stability选项对应原文第五段第一句，正确。
托福阅读译文
自从中东地区的商旅们成功跨越周围的戈壁，只有水路和山峦还是障碍时，贸易就成为了中东地区城市经济的主要支柱。这种情况(贸易是主要支柱)从古至今都是如此，一部分原因是中东地区的地质环境——多为沙石和石灰岩，金属矿藏和其它有用材料很少。古代对黑曜石(一种火山岩，可以用来制作镜子和工具)的需求引发了(中东地区)与北方的亚美尼亚之间的贸易;用作切削工具的玉石从土耳其斯坦购买;而稀有贵重的琉璃青金石是从阿富汗地区进口。探险活动最早可以追溯至古苏美尔——已知最早的中东文明。记录显示商队和贸易站由古苏美尔人在周围山区及古波斯和阿拉伯的沙漠地区建立。
过于依赖贸易造成了一些重大影响。生产工作一般在师傅也是店主的监视下，由熟练的工匠计件完成。在这些店铺中，阶级差异并不明显，，通常有着相同的宗教信仰，而且又是街坊邻里，彼此之间还很有可能(没准真的)是亲戚关系。工人和店主双方具有劳务关系，任一方都有权终止，这是合作关系中的一种。
这种生产模式有助于自主管理制度的发展，在中东城市里意识形态上秉持人人平等的手工行会比比皆是。他们实质上是专门提供互助且保护组织成员的协会组织，同时注重维持行业标准。独立行会不断增加，是因为剩余价值的产生并非由于国内生产，而是主要来自于国际间的贸易活动。政府允许劳动人民自主管理，这和部落首领让牧羊者们离群索居一样。在当地，团体、信仰以及生产方面的小型平等主义团体或类似平等主义的组织在这种自由放任的环境里遍地开花，和谐平等的团体中，成员之间相互影响，追随着他们自己选举的领导人，在缩小财富和权力差距的同时通过分享意见进行自我管理。
商品经济也通过靠贸易为生的商人所秉持的特定道德立场表现出来。他们具有独立自主、精于计算、敢于冒险和随遇而安的优秀品质。在部落成员之间，,商品经济里人们出口成契，诚信基础上的非正式联系形成了一个国际贸易网络。从没有商人和工匠对贵族职业的道德优越感如此宽容，这很好地促进了开放市场中的平等主义，人们辛勤工作，忠诚跟随，具备企业家精神非常重要。而且，这和畜牧文明类似，中东的商人和工匠们若对自己所处的环境不满意，简单收拾一下就可迁移到一个更加丰茂的牧场——纵观历史，如此随性而为的行为在其他多数文明中是无法想象的。
对远距离贸易的依赖也意味着伟大的中东帝国得以建立在这片飘忽不定却又无比真实的沙土之中。帝国中部尽管非常富足繁盛，但本质上脆弱不堪，因为新的国际贸易线路的出现会动摇经济基础并腐蚀国家权力。就在15世纪晚期达伽马绕过非洲开辟南部航线以后，欧洲的水手们便绕过中东商人改走南部航线了。该地区的生态环境也允许武装“捕食者”在周围的荒漠潜行，几乎很难被帝国控制。，这让政府惴惴不安。
苏美尔人(也译作苏默)，是历史上两河流域(底格里斯河和幼发拉底河中下游)早期的定居民族，他们所建立的苏美尔文明是整个美索不达米亚文明中最早，同时也是全世界最早产生的文明。
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