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Railroads and Commercial Agriculture inNineteenth-Century United States
【1】By 1850 the United States possessed roughly9,000 miles of railroad track; Ten years later it hadover 30,000 miles, more than the rest of the worldcombined. Much of the new construction during the 1850s occurred west of the AppalachianMountains—over 2,000 miles in the states of Ohio and Illinois alone.
【2】The effect of the new railroad lines rippled outward through the economy. Farmers alongthe tracks began to specialize in corps that they could market in distant locations. With theirprofits they purchased manufactured goods that earlier they might have made at home. Beforethe railroad reached Tennessee, the state produced about 25,000 bushels (or 640 tons) ofwheat, which sold for less than 50 cents a bushel. Once the railroad came, farmers in the samecounties grew 400,000 bushels (over 10,000 tons) and sold their crop at a dollar a bushel.
【3】The new railroad networks shifted the direction of western trade. In 1840 mostnorthwestern grain was shipped south down the Mississippi River to the bustling port of NewOrleans. But low water made steamboat travel hazardous in summer, and ice shut down trafficin winter. Products such as lard, tallow, and cheese quickly spoiled if stored in New Orleans’ hotand humid warehouses. Increasingly, traffic from the Midwest flowed west to east, over the newrail lines. Chicago became the region’s hub, linking the farms of the upper Midwest to New Yorkand other eastern cities by more than 2,000 miles of track in 1855. Thus while the value ofgoods shipped by river to New Orleans continued to increase, the South’s overall share ofwestern trade dropped dramatically.
【4】A sharp rise in demand for grain abroad also encouraged farmers in the Northeast andMidwest to become more commercially oriented. Wheat, which in 1845 commanded $1.08 abushel in New York City, fetched $2.46 in 1855; in similar fashion the price of corn nearlydoubled. Farmers responded by specializing in cash crops, borrowing to purchase more land,and investing in equipment to increase productivity.
【5】As railroad lines fanned out from Chicago, farmers began to acquire open prairie land inIllinois and then Iowa, putting the fertile, deep black soil into production. Commercialagriculture transformed this remarkable treeless environment. To settlers accustomed toeastern woodlands, the thousands of square miles of tall grass were an awesome sight. Indiangrass, Canada wild rye, and native big bluestem all grew higher than a person. Because easternplows could not penetrate the densely tangled roots of prairie grass, the earliest settlerserected farms along the boundary separating the forest from the prairie. In 1837, however,John Deere patented a sharp-cutting steel plow that sliced through the sod without soilsticking to the blade. Cyrus McCormick refined a mechanical reaper that harvested fourteentimes more wheat with the same amount of labor. By the 1850s McCormick was selling 1,000reapers a year and could not keep up with demand, while Deere turned out 10,000 plowsannually.
【6】The new commercial farming fundamentally altered the Midwestern landscape and theenvironment. Native Americans had grown corn in the region for years, but never in suchlarge fields as did later settlers who became farmers, whose surpluses were shipped east. Prairiefarmers also introduced new crops that were not part of the earlier ecological system, notablywheat, along with fruits and vegetables.
【7】Native grasses were replaced by a small number of plants cultivated as commodities.Corn had the best yields, but it was primarily used to feed livestock. Because bread played akey role in the American and European diet, wheat became the major cash crop. Tame grassesreplaced native grasses in pastures for making hay.
【8】Western farmers altered the landscape by reducing the annual fires that had kept theprairie free from trees. In the absence of these fires, trees reappeared on land not incultivation and, if undisturbed, eventually formed woodlots. The earlier unbroken landscapegave way to independent farms, each fenced off in a precise checkerboard pattern. It was anartificial ecosystem of animals, woodlots, and crops, whose large, uniform layout madewestern farms more efficient than the more-irregular farms in the East.
托福阅读试题
1.According to paragraph 1, each of the following is true about railroad track in theUnited States EXCEPT:
A.In 1850 the United States had less than 10,000 miles of railroad track.
B.By the end of the 1850s, Ohio and Illinois contained more railroad track than any otherstate in the country.
C.Much of the railroad track built in the United States during the 1850s was located west of theAppalachian Mountain.
D.By 1860 there were more miles of railroad track in the United States than in any othercountry.
2.It can be inferred from paragraph 2 that the new railroads had which of thefollowing effects on farm communities?
A.Most new farms were located along the tracks.
B.Farmers began to grow wheat as a commercial corp.
C.Many farmers decided to grow a wider variety of crops.
D.Demand for manufactured goods increased among farmers.
3.The word "bustling" in the passage (paragraph 3) is closest in meaning to
A.famous.
B.important.
C.growing.
D.busy.
4.According to paragraph 3, in what way did the new rail networks change westerntrade?
A.Northwestern farmers almost completely stopped shipping goods by steamboat.
B.Many western goods began to be shipped east by way of Chicago rather than south to NewOrleans.
C.Chicago largely replaced New York and other eastern cities as the final market for goods forthe West.
D.The value of goods shipped west soon became greater than the value of goods shipped east.
5.According to paragraph 3, what was a disadvantage of shipping goods fromnorthwestern areas to New Orleans?
A.There was no reliable way to get goods from New Orleans to eastern cities.
B.The cost of shipping goods by river to New Orleans continued to increase.
C.Goods shipped from New Orleans' neighboring areas had a significant competitiveadvantage because of their lower transportation costs.
D.The temperatures and humidity.
6.Paragraph 4 supports the idea that the price of wheat more than doubled between1845 and 1855 because
A.the price of corn nearly doubled during that same period.
B.demand for grain increased sharply outside the United States.
C.farmers in the Northeast and Midwest began to specialize in cash crops.
D.many farmers had borrowed heavily to purchase land and equipment for raising wheat.
7.The word "transformed" in the passage (paragraph 5) is closest in meaning to
A.dominated.
B.changed.
C.improved.
D.created.
8.The word "erected" in the passage (paragraph 5) is closest in meaning to
A.looked for.
B.lived on.
C.preferred.
D.built.
9.Why does author point out that "Indian grass, Canada wild rye, and native bigbluestem all grew higher than a person"(paragraph 5)?
A.To provide a reason why people from the eastern woodlands of the United States wereimpressed when they saw the prairie.
B.To identify an obstacles to the development of the railroad lines fanning out from Chicago.
C.To explain why the transformation of the prairies by commercial agriculture was soremarkable.
D.To provide evidence supporting the claim that the prairies had fertile, deep black soil.
10.According to paragraph 5, the first settlers generally did not farm open prairieland because
A.they could not plow it effectively with the tools that were available.
B.prairie land was usually very expensive to buy.
C.the soil along boundaries between the forest and the prairie was more fertile than the soil ofthe open prairie.
D.the railroad lines had not yet reached the open prairie when the first settlers arrived.
11.The word "surpluses" in the passage (paragraph 6) is closest in meaning to
A.extra goods
B.commercial goods
C.unprocessed goods
D.transportable goods
12.According to paragraph 8, prairie farmers changed the landscape by doing all ofthe following EXCEPT:
A.Reducing annual fires.
B.Dividing the land into large, regularly-shaped lots.
C.Planting trees that eventually formed woodlots.
D.Fencing off their farms.
13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could beadded to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? The problems were notlimited to routes of transport.
The new railroad networks shifted the direction of western trade. ■【A】In 1840 mostnorthwestern grain was shipped south down the Mississippi River to the bustling port of NewOrleans. ■【B】But low water made steamboat travel hazardous in summer, and ice shut downtraffic in winter. ■【C】Products such as lard, tallow, and cheese quickly spoiled if stored in NewOrleans' hot and humid warehouses. ■【D】Increasingly, traffic from the Midwest flowed westto east, over the new rail lines. Chicago became the region's hub, linking the farms of theupper Midwest to New York and other eastern cities by more than 2,000 miles of track in 1855.Thus while the value of goods shipped by river to New Orleans continued to increase, theSouth's overall share of western trade dropped dramatically.
14. Prose Summary
The huge expansion of rail lines in Midwestern United States during the 1850s hadmajor economic and environmental effects.
A.Construction of new rail lines into the Midwest had been effectively stopped by theAppalachian Mountains, but by 1850 improved construction technology had made furtheradvances possible.
B.Rail lines to Chicago and on to the East made it easier to get Midwestern goods to distantmarkets, while growing demand encouraged crop specialization and led to higher crop prices.
C.Because of the growing volume of traffic coming by rail from the Northeast and Midwest, thevalue of goods arriving in New Orleans for shipment to markets abroad increased dramatically.
D.Access to rail lines combined with the development of more-efficient farming equipmentallowed e fertile land of the open prairies to be used for large-scale commercial agriculture.
E.Reduction of annual prairie fires allowed trees to reappear, and native grasses were replacedby a few commercially grown plants as previously unbroken grasslands were divided into largefenced fields.
F.Native Americans had grown corn on the prairies for years but had not produced largesurpluses because the varieties they planted had far poorer yields than those introduced bycommercial farmers.
托福阅读答案
1.否定细节题：定位句 By 1850 the United States possessed roughly 9,000 miles of railroad track;对应 A 选项。定位句 Much of the new construction during the 1850s occurred west of theAppalachian Mountains E over 2.000 miles in the states of Ohio and Illinois alone.对应C选项，同时由于该句子中没有出 现有关Ohio and Illinois比较的相关信息.因此B选项错误。定位句then years later ithad over 30,000 miles，more than the rest of the world combined. 对应D选项。
2.推断题：定位句The effect of the new railroad lines rippled outward through the economy.Farmers along the tracks began to specialize in corps that they could market in distantlocations. With their profits they purchased manufactured goods that earlier they might havemade at home.意思是说因为铁路建设带动了经济，农民开始有钱了，于是就开始买手工制品了。因此就可以推断出，农民有钱了就有了买东西的欲望和需求。
3.bustling， 繁忙的，对应D。
4.细节题：定位句 The new railroad networks shifted the direction of western trade. Chicagobecame the legion's hub, linking the farms of the upper Midwest to New York and other easterncities by more than 2.000 miles of track in 1855.意思是铁路的建设转移了西方贸易的方向，芝加哥成为了贸易中心，取代了原先的新奥尔良。因此答案是B。
5.细节题：Thus while the value of goods shipped by river to New Orleans continued to increase,the South's overall share of western trade dropped dramatically.意思是说因为虽然货物本身的价值在增加，但是南部的市场份额却在下降，就暗示了越来越少人的人愿意通过该途径运货，即要么速度太慢要么成本太高。因此这道题的答案是B。
6.细节题：定位句A sharp rise in demand for grain abroad also encouraged farmers in theNortheast and Midwest to become more commercially oriented.国外的粮食需求猛增，然后该段最后出现的结果就是价格上升。
7.transform，变形，对应B。
8.erect，建立，对应D。
9.修辞目的题：定位句As railroad lilies fanned out from Chicago, farmers began to acquire openprairie land in Illinois and then Iowa, putting the fertile, deep black soil into production.该段的主旨：农民将肥沃的黑土投入生产中，题干中的信息是一个具体的例子，表明的是具体的产物。
10.细节题：定位句 Because eastern plows could not penetrate the densely tangled roots ofprairie grass, the earliest settlers erected farms along the boundary separating the forest fromthe prairie.原因是梨不能穿透草地，因此答案只可能是A。
11.surpluses，剩余，多余的东西，选A。
12.否定细节题：定位句 Western farmers altered the landscape by reducing the annual fires thathad kept the prairie free from trees.对应A选项。定位句The earlier unbroken landscape gave toindependent farms, each fenced off in a precise checkerboard pattern.对应D选项。定位句 Theearlier unbroken landscape gave to independent farms. each fenced off in a precisecheckerboard pattern. It was an artificial ecosystem of animals, woodlots. and crops, whoselarge, uniform layout made western farms more efficient than the more -irregular farms inthe East, checkerboard pattern 棋盘格样式，对应B选项。C选项错在没有提到planting trees。
13.句子插入题：原句的意思是问题不仅局限在道路运输上，因此我们可以推 断出该句子的下一句应该会提到其他的问题，因此第三个方框满足要求。前面再讲水路问题，后面讲到了天气和湿度问题。插入的句子正好起到了承上启下的作用。
14.Access to rail lilies combined with the development of more - efficient fanning equipmentallowed fertile land of the open prairies of the open prairies to be used for large - scalecommercial agriculture.正确。对应第二、五段，铁路的发展带动经济，农民获得土地，改进农作用具，提高农作物的产量。
Reduction of annual prairie fires allowed trees to reappear, and native grasses were replaced bya few commercially grown plants as previously unbroken grasslands were decided into largefenced fields.正确。对应第八段主旨，农民通过各式各样的方法改变地貌，发展农业。
E正确。对应第三段主要内容 The new railroad networks shifted the direction of western trade.Chicago became the region's hub，linking the farms of the upper Midwest to New York andother eastern cities by more than 2.000 miles of track in 1855. Thus while the value of goodsshipped by river to New Orleans continued to increase, the South's overall share of westerntrade dropped dramatically.水利交通的没落和铁路运输的兴起。
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