备考tpo41阅读题目文本及答案解析【Trade
and Early State Formation】。
Trade and Early State Formation
(原文略)
Paragraph 1
Bartering was a basic trade mechanism for many thousands of years; often sporadic and usually based on notions of reciprocity, it involved the mutual exchange of commodities or objects between individuals or groups. Redistribution of these goods through society lay in the hands of chiefs, religious leaders, or kin groups. Such redistribution was a basic element in chiefdoms. The change from redistribution to formal trade—often based on regulated commerce that perhaps involved fixed prices and even currency—was closely tied to growing political and social complexity and hence to the development of the state in the ancient world.
1. The word "notions" in the passage is closest in meaning to 【词汇题】
A. ideas
B. rules
C. degrees
D. traditions
答案：A
解析：notions, 概念，见解，打算。
Ideas, 概念，想法。Rules, 规则，条例。Degrees, 程度，等级。 Traditions, 惯例，传统。
所以A选项正确。
2. According to paragraph 1, what development occurred as political and social complexity increased?【事实信息题】
A. The prices of most commodities rose.
B. Formal trade emerged.
C. Chiefs became more powerful
D. Bartering became the preferred means of trade.
答案：B
解析：根据题干中的“political and social complexity”,定位至最后一句话。根据原文“The change from redistribution to formal trade”, B选项为同义替换，正式贸易的出现，因此选项B正确。
Paragraph 2
In the 1970s, a number of archaeologists gave trade a primary role in the rise of ancient states. British archaeologist Colin Renfrew attributed the dramatic flowering of the Minoan civilization on Crete and through the Aegean to intensified trading contacts and to the impact of olive and vine cultivation on local communities. As agricultural economies became more diversified and local food supplies could be purchased both locally and over longer distances, a far-reaching economic interdependence resulted. Eventually, this led to redistribution systems for luxuries and basic commodities, systems that were organized and controlled by Minoan rulers from their palaces. As time went on, the self-sufficiency of communities was replaced by mutual dependence. Interest in long-distance trade brought about some cultural homogeneity from trade and gift exchange, and perhaps even led to piracy. Thus, intensified trade and interaction, and the flowering of specialist crafts, in a complex process of positive feedback, led to much more complex societies based on palaces, which were the economic hubs of a new Minoan civilization.
3. The word “diversified” in the passage is closest in meaning to 【词汇题】
A. organized
B. selective
C. varied
D. efficient
答案：C
解析：diversified, 多样化的，各种的。
Organized, 有组织的，安排有秩序的。Selective, 选择性的。Varied, 多变的，各式各样的。Efficient, 有效率的。因此C选项正确。
4. According to paragraph 2, which of the following controlled the systems of redistribution of goods in ancient Crete? 【事实信息题】
A. Local community leaders
B. Olive growers
C. Minoan rulers
D. Long-distance traders
答案：C
解析：根据原文第四句话“Eventually, this led to redistribution systems for luxuries and basic commodities, systems that were organized and controlled by Minoan rulers from their palaces. ”可知此系统由Minoan rulers控制，因此C选项正确。
本文是托福tpo41阅读题目文本及答案解析【Trade and Early State Formation】。
5. According to paragraph 2, Renfrew believed that one effect of long-distance trade in the Aegean was 【事实信息题】
A. a greater effort to control piracy
B. greater cultural similarity throughout the region
C. a decline in local olive production
D. a decline in the use of luxuries for gift exchanges
答案：B
解析：根据原文第六句话“Interest in long-distance trade brought about some cultural homogeneity from trade and gift exchange”, 其中的cultural homogeneity意为文化趋同，和B选项中的cultural similarity互为同意，因此B选项正确。
Paragraph 3
Renfrew’s model made some assumptions that are now discounted. For example, he argued that the introduction of domesticated vines and olives allowed a substantial expansion of land under cultivation and helped to power the emergence of complex society. Many archaeologists and paleobotanists now question this view, pointing out that the available evidence for cultivated vines and olives suggests that they were present only in the later Bronze Age. Trade, nevertheless, was probably one of many variables that led to the emergence of palace economies in Minoan Crete.
6. According to paragraph 3, what was a major problem with Renfrew’s model? 【事实信息题】
A. He overlooked the fact that only the Minoan palaces had access to domesticated vines and olives.
B. He wrongly assumed that the introduction of domesticated vines and olives led to the cultivation of more land.
C. Trade in domesticated plants was much more important to the emergence of Minoan palace economies than he thought.
D. Domesticated vines and olives do not appear to have been available as early as he thought
答案：D
解析：根据原文第三句话“pointing out that the available evidence for cultivated vines and olives suggests that they were present only in the later Bronze Age.”可知D选项为同意替换，家养的葡萄藤和橄榄没有Renfrew预想中出现的那么早。其中they were present only in the later Bronze Age对应D选项中的do not appear to have been available as early as he thought. 所以D选项正确。
Paragraph 4
American archaeologist William Rathje developed a hypothesis that considered an explosion in long-distance exchange a fundamental cause of Mayan civilization in Mesoamerica. He suggested that the lowland Mayan environment was deficient in many vital resources, among them obsidian, salt, stone for grinding maize, and many luxury materials. All these could be obtained from the nearby highlands, from the Valley of Mexico, and from other regions, if the necessary trading networks came into being. Such connections, and the trading expeditions to maintain them, could not be organized by individual villages. The Maya lived in a relatively uniform environment, where every community suffered from the same resource deficiencies. Thus, argued Rathje, long-distance trade networks were organized through local ceremonial centers and their leaders. In time, this organization became a state, and knowledge of its functioning was exportable, as were pottery, tropical bird feathers, specialized stone materials, and other local commodities.
7. According to paragraph 4, which of the following was true about ancient Mayan communities?【事实信息题】
A. They each created their own separate trading networks with communities in the nearby highlands.
B. They all had many luxury materials that they were able to trade for resources that they lacked.
C. They all needed to obtain a number of important materials through trade with other regions.
D. They all gradually reduced their trading activities with communities in the Valley of Mexico and developed trading networks with other regions.
答案：C
解析：根据原文第三句话“All these could be obtained from the nearby highlands, from the Valley of Mexico, and from other regions,” 可明显看出选项C为同意替换，其中from other regions对应C选项中的 with other regions. 因此选项C正确。
8. What can be inferred from the fact that the Maya lived in a “relatively uniform environment”? 【推理题】
A. The communities could not obtain resources they lacked by trading with each other.
B. The communities’ ceremonial centers were all organized in much the same way.
C. Increased competition between the communities to export their local commodities expanded commercial networks beyond the nearby highlands.
D. Different communities tended to specialize in the production of different commodities.
答案：A
解析：因为玛雅人都居住在一个相对统一的环境中，所以肯定无法与彼此进行贸易往来以获取所需资源，所以A选项正确。
Paragraph 5
Rathje’s hypothesis probably explains part of the complex process of Mayan state formation, but it suffers from the objection that suitable alternative raw materials can be found in the lowlands. It could be, too, that warfare became a competitive response to population growth and to the increasing scarcity of prime agricultural land, and that it played an important role in the emergence of the Mayan states.
Paragraph 4
American archaeologist William Rathje developed a hypothesis that considered an explosion in long-distance exchange a fundamental cause of Mayan civilization in Mesoamerica. He suggested that the lowland Mayan environment was deficient in many vital resources, among them obsidian, salt, stone for grinding maize, and many luxury materials. All these could be obtained from the nearby highlands, from the Valley of Mexico, and from other regions, if the necessary trading networks came into being. Such connections, and the trading expeditions to maintain them, could not be organized by individual villages. The Maya lived in a relatively uniform environment, where every community suffered from the same resource deficiencies. Thus, argued Rathje, long-distance trade networks were organized through local ceremonial centers and their leaders. In time, this organization became a state, and knowledge of its functioning was exportable, as were pottery, tropical bird feathers, specialized stone materials, and other local commodities.
9. The word “prime” in the passage is closest in meaning to 【词汇题】
A. low-lying
B. easily accessible
C. unused
D. high-quality
答案：D
解析：prime,主要的，最好的。
Low-lying, 低洼的。Easily accessible, 容易进入的。Unused, 未使用的。High-quality, 高质量的。因此D选项正确。
10. What is the role of paragraph 5 in relation to paragraph 4? 【组织结构题】
A. It restates the hypothesis presented in paragraph 4 and reinforces it with further evidence.
B. It presents evidence that the hypothesis discussed in paragraph 4 confuses cause and effect.
C. It presents a critical assessment of the hypothesis presented in paragraph 4.
D. It explains how the hypothesis discussed in paragraph 4 was initially formulated.
答案：C
解析：在第五段中，作者说Rathje的假设或许可以解释玛雅形成的复杂过程中的一部分，但是它也承受着可以在低地找到原材料合适的替代品的异议。所以可以看出作者的态度是带有批判性的，因此C选项正确。
Paragraph 6
Now that we know much more about ancient exchange and commerce, we know that, because no one aspect of trade was an overriding cause of cultural change or evolution in commercial practices, trade can never be looked on as a unifying factor or as a primary agent of ancient civilization. Many ever-changing variables affected ancient trade, among them the demand for goods. There were also the logistics of transportation, the extent of the trading network, and the social and political environment. Intricate market networks channeled supplies along well-defined routes. Authorities at both ends might regulate the profits fed back to the source, providing the incentive for further transactions. There may or may not have been a market organization. Extensive long-distance trade was a consequence rather than a cause of complex societies.
11. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. 【句子简化题】
A. We now know that ancient trade cannot be considered a main factor in the rise of civilization, because no one aspect of it caused change in culture or commercial practices.
B. We now know that the growth of civilization was an important factor in causing cultural change and in improving commercial practices.
C. We now know much more about how ancient trade and commerce led to cultural changes and the evolution of commercial practices.
D. We now know much more about the main factors and agents that led to ancient civilization, because we know what aspects of trade affected culture and commercial practices.
答案：A
解析：highlighted部分意为，现在我们已经了解了更多关于古代交换和贸易的内容，我们知道因为没有一个单一方面的贸易可以作为文化改变或者商业实践中的演变最重要的原因，贸易永远不会被视为一个统一因子或者是一个古代文明的重要媒介。因此根据句子主干，只有A选项符合。
12. According to paragraph 6, all of the following statements about trade in ancient civilizations are true EXCEPT: 【否定事实信息题】
A. The spread of trade was influenced by many variables, none of which was the main cause.
B. Political conditions were more important than demand for goods in the development of trade.
C. Some markets had clearly established trading routes.
D. The regulation of profits provided incentives for future trade.
答案：B
解析：根据原文第三句话“There were also the logistics of transportation, the extent of the trading network, and the social and political environment.”可知，，并且均没有对商品的需求更加重要。因此选择B选项。
13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. 【句子插入题】
But demand for locally unobtainable resources was clearly only a part of the story.
Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square [■] to add the sentence to the passage.
Now that we know much more about ancient exchange and commerce, we know that, because no one aspect of trade was an overriding cause of cultural change or evolution in commercial practices, trade can never be looked on as a unifying factor or as a primary agent of ancient civilization. [■] Many ever-changing variables affected ancient trade, among them the demand for goods. [■] There were also the logistics of transportation, the extent of the trading network, and the social and political environment. [■] Intricate market networks channeled supplies along well-defined routes. [■] Authorities at both ends might regulate the profits fed back to the source, providing the incentive for further transactions. There may or may not have been a market organization. Extensive long-distance trade was a consequence rather than a cause of complex societies.
答案：B
解析：B选项的句子列举了运输物流，商业网的延伸，。均为待插入句子中所提及的本地难以获得的资源。所以选择B选项。
14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.【概要小结题】
Drag your answer choices to the spaces where they belong. To remove an answer choice, click on it.
To review the passage, click VIEW TEXT.
Various attempts have been made to explore the role that trade played in the rise of ancient states.
Answer Choices
A. Barter, a basic trade mechanism that involved the direct exchange of goods or services, depended on a high degree of social complexity.
B. It was only in the 1970s that most archaeologists began to realize that the long-distance trade typical of Minoan communities varied significantly from that of lowland Mayan communities.
C. Renfrew and Rathje are recognized today for having correctly analyzed the basic relationship between trade and the emergence of states, even though they were wrong about many details.
D. Renfrew suggested that an organized state emerged in Minoan Crete because of intensified trade, but current views indicate that trade was probably only one of many variables.
E. Rathje's hypothesis that long-distance trade led to the emergence of a Mayan state has been objected to, and it is argued that other factors such as warfare may have played an important role too.
F. Current views indicate that trade was not the most important agent of ancient civilization and that long-distance trade was a result rather than a cause of complex societies.
答案：D, E, F
解析：
根据原文第一段可看出，bartering与社会的复杂程度是紧密相关的，was closely tied to growing political and social complexity, 并非完全依赖于此。并且A选项过于细节，不属于文章主旨。所以A选项错误。
根据1970s定位至原文第二段，发现文中并未提及Minoan communities与lowland Mayan communities之间典型的长途贸易的差别。所以B选项错误。
文章并没有说Renfrew 和Rathje的理论中的细节是错误的。所以C选项错误。
根据原文Trade, nevertheless, was probably one of many variables that led to the emergence of palace economies in Minoan Crete.所以D选项正确。
根据原文Rathje’s hypothesis probably explains part of the complex process of Mayan state formation, but it suffers from the objection that suitable alternative raw materials can be found in the lowlands. It could be, too, that warfare became a competitive response to population growth and to the increasing scarcity of prime agricultural land, and that it played an important role in the emergence of the Mayan states.其中but it suffers from the objection对应E选项中的has been objected to. 所以E选项正确。
根据原文because no one aspect of trade was an overriding cause of cultural change or evolution in commercial practices, trade can never be looked on as a unifying factor or as a primary agent of ancient civilization.和Extensive long-distance trade was a consequence rather than a cause of complex societies.可知F选项正确。
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