NINETEENTH-CENTURY POLITICS IN THE UNITED STATES
The development of the modern presidency in the United States began with Andrew Jackson who swept to power in 1829 at the head of the Democratic Party and served until 1837. During his administration, he immeasurably enlarged the power of the presidency. "The President is the direct representative of the American people," he lectured the Senate when it opposed him. "He was elected by the people, and is responsible to them." With this declaration, Jackson redefined the character of the presidential office and its relationship to the people.
During Jackson's second term, his opponents had gradually come together to form the Whig party. Whigs and Democrats held different attitudes toward the changes brought about by the market, banks, and commerce. The Democrats tended to view society as a continuing conflict between "the people”-farmers, planters, and workers-and a set of greedy aristocrats. This "paper money aristocracy" of bankers and investors manipulated the banking system for their own profit, Democrats claimed, and sapped the nation's virtue by encouraging speculation and the desire for sudden, unearned wealth. The Democrats wanted the rewards of the market without sacrificing the features of a simple agrarian republic. They wanted the wealth that the market offered without the competitive, changing society; the complex dealing; the dominance of urban centers; and the loss of independence that came with it.
Whigs, on the other hand, were more comfortable with the market. For them, commerce and economic development were agents of civilization. Nor did the Whigs envision any conflict in society between farmers and workers on the one hand and businesspeople and bankers on the other. Economic growth would benefit everyone by raising national income and expanding opportunity. The government's responsibility was to provide a well-regulated economy that guaranteed opportunity for citizens of ability.
Whigs and Democrats differed not only in their attitudes toward the market but also about how active the central government should be in people's lives. Despite Andrew Jackson's inclination to be a strong President, Democrats as a rule believed in limited government. Government's role in the economy was to promote competition by destroying monopolies' and special privileges. In keeping with this philosophy of limited government, Democrats also rejected the idea that moral beliefs were the proper sphere of government action. Religion and politics, they believed, should be kept clearly separate, and they generally opposed humanitarian legislation.
The Whigs, in contrast, viewed government power positively. They believed that it should be used to protect individual rights and public liberty, and that it had a special role where individual effort was ineffective. By regulating the economy and competition, the government could ensure equal opportunity. Indeed, for Whigs the concept of government promoting the general welfare went beyond the economy. In particular, Whigs in the northern sections of the United States also believed that government power should be used to foster the moral welfare of the country. They were much more likely to favor social-reform legislation and aid to education.
In some ways the social makeup of the two parties was similar. To be competitive in winning votes, Whigs and Democrats both had to have significant support among farmers, the largest group in society, and workers.
Neither party could win an election by appealing exclusively to the rich or the poor. The Whigs, however, enjoyed disproportionate strength among the business and commercial classes. Whigs appealed to planters who needed credit to finance their cotton and rice trade in the world market, to farmers who were eager to sell their surpluses, and to workers who wished to improve themselves. Democrats attracted farmers isolated from the market or uncomfortable with it, workers alienated from the emerging industrial system, and rising entrepreneurs who wanted to break monopolies and open the economy to newcomers like themselves. The Whigs were strongest in the towns, cities, and those rural areas that were fully integrated into the market economy, whereas Democrats dominated areas of semisubsistence farming that were more isolated and languishing economically.
Paragraph 1: The development of the modern presidency in the United States began with Andrew Jackson who swept to power in 1829 at the head of the Democratic Party and served until 1837. During his administration, he immeasurably enlarged the power of the presidency. "The President is the direct representative of the American people," he lectured the Senate when it opposed him. "He was elected by the people, and is responsible to them." With this declaration, Jackson redefined the character of the presidential office and its relationship to the people.
1.The word immeasurably in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Frequently
○Greatly
○Rapidly
○Reportedly
2.According to paragraph 1, the presidency of Andrew Jackson was especially significant for which of the following reasons?
○The President granted a portion of his power to the Senate.
○The President began to address the Senate on a regular basis.
○It was the beginning of the modern presidency in the United States.
○It was the first time that the Senate had been known to oppose the President.
Paragraph 2: During Jackson's second term, his opponents had gradually come together to form the Whig party. Whigs and Democrats held different attitudes toward the changes brought about by the market, banks, and commerce. The Democrats tended to view society as a continuing conflict between "the people”-farmers, planters, and workers-and a set of greedy aristocrats. This "paper money aristocracy" of bankers and investors manipulated the banking system for their own profit, Democrats claimed, and sapped the nation's virtue by encouraging speculation and the desire for sudden, unearned wealth. The Democrats wanted the rewards of the market without sacrificing the features of a simple agrarian republic. They wanted the wealth that the market offered without the competitive, changing society; the complex dealing; the dominance of urban centers; and the loss of independence that came with it.
bankers and investors
3.The author mentionsin the passage as an example of which of the following?
○The Democratic Party's main source of support
○The people that Democrats claimed were unfairly becoming rich
○The people most interested in a return to a simple agrarian republic
○One of the groups in favor of Andrew Jackson's presidency
Paragraph 3: Whigs, on the other hand, were more comfortable with the market. For them, commerce and economic development were agents of civilization. Nor did the Whigs envision any conflict in society between farmers and workers on the one hand and businesspeople and bankers on the other. Economic growth would benefit everyone by raising national income and expanding opportunity. The government's responsibility was to provide a well-regulated economy that guaranteed opportunity for citizens of ability.
4.According to paragraph 3, Whigs believed that commerce and economic development would have which of the following effects on society?
○They would promote the advancement of society as a whole. ○They would cause disagreements between Whigs and Democrats ○They would supply new positions for Whig Party members. ○They would prevent conflict between farmers and workers.
5.According to paragraph 3, which of the following describes the Whig Party's view of the role of government?
○To regulate the continuing conflict between farmers and businesspeople
○To restrict the changes brought about by the market
○To maintain an economy that allowed all capable citizens to benefit
○To reduce the emphasis on economic development
Paragraph 4: Whigs and Democrats differed not only in their attitudes toward the market but also about how active the central government should be in people's lives. Despite Andrew Jackson's inclination to be a strong President, Democrats as a rule believed in limited government. Government's role in the economy was to promote competition by destroying monopolies' and special privileges. In keeping with this philosophy of limited government, Democrats also rejected the idea that moral beliefs were the proper sphere of government action. Religion and politics, they believed, should be kept clearly separate, and they generally opposed humanitarian legislation.
6.The word inclination in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Argument
○Tendency
○Example ○Warning
7.According to paragraph 4, a Democrat would be most likely to support government action in which of the following areas?
○Creating a state religion
○Supporting humanitarian legislation
○Destroying monopolies
○Recommending particular moral beliefs
concept
Paragraph 5: The Whigs, in contrast, viewed government power positively. They believed that it should be used to protect individual rights and public liberty, and that it had a special role where individual effort was ineffective. By regulating the economy and competition, the government could ensure equal opportunity. Indeed, for Whigs theof government promoting the general welfare went beyond the economy. In particular, Whigs in the northern sections of the United States also believed that government power should be used to foster the moral welfare of the country. They were much more likely to favor social-reform legislation and aid to education.
8.The word concept in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Power
○Reality
○Difficulty
○Idea
9.Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 5 about variations in political beliefs within the Whig Party?
○They were focused on issues of public liberty.
○They caused some members to leave the Whig party.
○They were unimportant to most Whigs. ○They reflected regional interests.
The Whigs were strongest in the towns, cities, and those rural areas that were fully integrated into
Paragraph 6: In some ways the social makeup of the two parties was similar. To be competitive in winning votes, Whigs and Democrats both had to have significant support among farmers, the largest group in society, and workers. Neither party could win an election by appealing exclusively to the rich or the poor. The Whigs, however, enjoyed disproportionate strength among the business and commercial classes. Whigs appealed to planters who needed credit to finance their cotton and rice trade in the world market, to farmers who were eager to sell their surpluses, and to workers who wished to improve themselves. Democrats attracted farmers isolated from the market or uncomfortable with it, workers alienated from the emerging industrial system, and rising entrepreneurs who wanted to break monopolies and open the economy to newcomers like themselves.
the market economy, whereas Democrats dominated areas of semisubsistence farming that were more isolated
and languishing economically.
10.According to paragraph 6, the Democrats were supported by all of the following groups EXCEPT
○workers unhappy with the new industrial system
○planters involved in international trade
○rising entrepreneurs
○individuals seeking to open the economy to newcomers
11.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage?
Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
○Whigs were able to attract support only in the wealthiest parts of the economy because Democrats dominated in other areas.
○Whig and Democratic areas of influence were naturally split between urban and rural areas, respectively.
○The semisubsistence farming areas dominated by Democrats became increasingly isolated by the Whigs' control of the market economy.
○The Democrats' power was greatest in poorer areas while the Whigs were strongest in those areas where the market was already fully operating.
Paragraph 2: During Jackson's second term, his opponents had gradually come together to form the Whig party. █Whigs and Democrats held different attitudes toward the changes brought about by the market, banks, and commerce. █The Democrats tended to view society as a continuing conflict between "the people”-farmers, planters, and workers-and a set of greedy aristocrats. █This "paper money aristocracy" of bankers and investors manipulated the banking system for their own profit, Democrats claimed, and sapped the nation's virtue by encouraging speculation and the desire for sudden, unearned wealth. █The Democrats wanted the rewards of the market without sacrificing the features of a simple agrarian republic. They wanted the wealth that the market offered without the competitive, changing society; the complex dealing; the dominance of urban centers; and the loss of independence that came with it.
12.Look at the four squares II that indicate where the following sentence can be added to the passage.
This new party argued against the policies of Jackson and his party in a number of important areas, beginning with the economy. Where would the sentence best fit?
13.Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. Thisquestionisworth2points.
The political system of the United States in the mid-nineteenth century was strongly influenced by the social and economic circumstances of the time.
●
●
●
Answer Choices
1.The Democratic and Whig Parties developed in response to the needs of competing economic and political constituencies.
2.During Andrew Jackson's two terms as President, he served as leader of both the Democratic and Whig
Parties.
3.The Democratic Party primarily represented the interests of the market, banks, and commerce.
4.In contrast to the Democrats, the Whigs favored government aid for education.
5.A fundamental difference between Whigs and Democrats involved the importance of the market in society.
6.The role of government in the lives of the people was an important political distinction between the two parties.
参考答案：
1.○2
This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is immeasurably.It is highlighted in the passage. Iiznzeasurab2y means "in a manner too big to be measured." So if Jackson enlarged the president's powers so much that the results can't be measured, he enlarged them "greatly."
2.○3
This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in paragraph 1. The correct answer is choice 3 because the first sentence of the paragraph explicitly states that this was when the development of the modern presidency began. The remainder of the paragraph is devoted to explaining the significant changes in government that this development involved. The result, as stated in sentence 5, was that the nature of the presidency itself was redefined. Choice 1 is contradicted by the paragraph; Jackson didn't give presidential power away, he increased it. Choice 2 is not mentioned in the paragraph: it says Jackson addressed the Senate, but not that this was the beginning of regular addresses. Choice 4, which says that this was the first time the Senate opposed the President, is not stated in the passage.
3.○2
This is a Rhetorical Purpose question. It is asking you why the author mentions "bankers and investors" in the passage. The phrase being tested is highlighted in the passage. The correct answer is choice 2. The author is using bankers and investors as examples of people that the Democrats claimed were
"manipulating" the banking system for their own profit. That means that they were unfairly becoming rich.
Choices 1, 3, and 4 are all incorrect because, based upon the passage, they seem unlikely to be true. Therefore, the author would not use them as examples.
4.○1
This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in paragraph 3. Choice 1 is the correct answer. The paragraph says that Whigs believed commerce and economic development "would benefit everyone." That means essentially the same thing as choice 1, which says that Whigs believedeconomic growth would "promote the advancement of society as a whole." "Society as a whole" is another way of saying "everyone." Choices 2 and 3 are not mentioned in the paragraph. Choice 4, about conflict between groups, is mentioned but in a different context, so it is not a belief held by Whigs.
5.○3
This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in paragraph 3. The correct answer is choice 3: the Whigs viewed government as responsible for maintaining an economy that allowed all capable citizens to benefit. This is a restatement of paragraph 3, sentence 5. The paragraph states that Whigs did not envision continuing conflict between farmers and business people, so choice 1 is wrong. Whigs favored changes brought about b) the market, so choice 2 is wrong. Whigs were in favor of increased emphasis on economic development, so choice 4 is incorrect.
6.○2
This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is inclination. It is highlighted in the passage. The fact that Jackson had an inclination to be a strong President means that he preferred being strong to having limited powers. In other words, his "tendency" was to favor a strong presidency, so choice 2 is the correct answer.
7.○3
This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in paragraph 4. The correct answer is choice 3, which is explicitly stated in sentence 3 of the paragraph. Sentences 4 and 5 explicitly refute the other choices.
8.○4
This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is concept. It is highlighted in the passage. The passage says that "for Whigs the concept of government was . . ." In other words, "the way Whigs thought about government was." That process of thinking represents ideas, so choice 4 is the correct answer here.
9.○4
This is an Inference question asking for an inference that can be supported by paragraph 5. The correct answer is choice 4: variations in Whigs' political beliefs reflected regional differences. This is supported by sentence 5 of the paragraph which says that certain beliefs "particularly" reflected the views of northern Whigs. That suggests that Whigs in other regions of the country had beliefs that varied from this view and implies that such differences were regional. The other three choices are not mentioned in the passage in connection with "variations" in Whig beliefs, so there is no basis for inferring any of them.
10.○ 2
This is a Negative Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in paragraph 6. Choice 2 is the correct answer. Sentence 5 says that it was Whigs, notDemocrats, who had the support of planters involved in international trade. The next sentence, sentence 6, says that in contrast, Democrats had the support of the groups mentioned in choices 1, 3, and 4 ("workers," "entrepreneurs," and certain other "individuals"). Therefore, all of the groups described in the answer choices, EXCEPT the planters of choice 2, did support the Democrats.
11.○ 4
This is a Sentence Simplification question. As with all of these items, a single sentence in the passage is highlighted:
TheWhigswerestrongestinthetowns,cities,andthoseruralareasthatwerefullyintegratedintothe marketeconomy,whereasDemocratsdominatedareasofsemisubsistencefarmingthatweremore isolatedandlanguishingeconomically.The correct answer is choice 4. Choice "contains all of the
essential information in the tested sentence but the order in which it is presented is reversed. The highlighted sentence describes areas of Whig strength first, and then the areas where Democrats were strong. The correct answer, choice 4, describes Democrat strongholds first, and then Whig areas. No meaning has been changed, and no information has been left out. Choice 1 is incorrect because it states that Whigs were able to attract support only in the wealthiest areas. The highlighted sentence does not say that; it says their support came from places integrated into the market, which can include areas of all economic levels.
Choice 2 is incorrect because it says that the two parties were split between rural and urban areas.
However, the highlighted sentence says that Whigs were strong in rural areas that were integrated into
the market economy. In other words, the split between the parties was based on the degree to which an area was integrated into the market, not whether it was urban or rural. Choice 3 is incorrect because the highlighted sentence makes no mention of how (or if) the Whigs' control of the market economy affected the areas dominated by the Democrats.
12.○ 1
This is an Insert Text question. You can see the four black squares in paragraph 2 that represent the possible answer choices here.
DuringJackson'ssecondterm,hisopponentshadgraduallycometogethertoformtheWhigparty.■ WhigsandDemocratshelddifferentattitudestowardthechangesbroughtaboutbythemarket,banks, andcommerce.■TheDemocratstendedtoviewsocietyasacontinuingconflictbetween"thepeople “farmers,planters,andworkers-andasetofgreedyaristocrats.■This"papermoneyaristocracy"of bankersandinvestorsmanipulatedthebankingsystemfortheirownprofit,Democratsclaimed,and sappedthenation'svirtuebyencouragingspeculationandthedesireforsudden,unearnedwealth.■ TheDemocratswantedtherewardsofthemarketwithoutsacrificingthefeaturesofasimpleagrarian republic.Theywantedthewealththatthemarketofferedwithoutthecompetitive,changingsociety;the complexdealing;thedominanceofurbancenters;andthelossofindependencethatcamewithit. The sentence provided, "This new party argued against the policies of Jackson and his party in a number of important areas, beginning with the economy," is best inserted at square 1. Square 1 is correct because the phrase "This new party" refers directly and only to the Whigs, who are first mentioned (as a recently formed party) in sentence 1 of this paragraph. Square 2 is incorrect because the sentence before is not limited to the new Whig party. It discusses both Whigs and Democrats. Squares 3 and 4 are both incorrect because the sentences preceding them refer to the Democrats (the old party), not the Whigs.
13.○1 5 6
This is a Prose Summary question. It is completed correctly below. The correct choices are 1, 5, and 6.
Choices 2, 3, and 4 are therefore incorrect.
参考译文
美国现代总统制度的发展是从安德鲁杰克逊开始的。这位民主党领导人在 1829 年掌权，直至 1837 年卸任。在他任职期间，总统的权力被无限量地扩大了。参议院反对他时，他曾说：“总统是美国人民的直接代表，美国总统由公民选举产生，对公民负责。”杰克逊用这番话重新定义了内阁的角色，及其与民众的关系。
在杰克逊的第二任任职期间，他的反对者们逐渐联合起来形成了辉格党。辉格党和民主党在市场、银行、商业引发的变化上持有不同的态度。民主党倾向于把社会视作平民(农民、种植园主、工人)和一小撮贪婪的贵族间持续的斗争。他们宣称，那些银行家和投资者们都是“钞票贵族”，他们在自己利益的驱使下操纵着银行系统，并且以鼓励投机和迅速赚取不义之财的行为败坏国民道德。民主党人既想从市场经济中获得好处，又不想牺牲单一土地所有权的共和体制。他们想要市场经济带来的财富而不想要竞争，不想改变社会;不想要复杂的交易;不要大城市的主宰和随着市场经济而来的独立性的丧失。
另一方面，辉格党对市场更为适应。对于他们来说，商业和经济的发展是文明化的动力。然而，辉格党人并没有预见农民、工人和商人、银行家之间的冲突。他们认为，经济发展会通过增加国民收入和就业机会使每个人受益。政府的职责就是提供一个井然有序运作良好的经济环境，保证给每一个有能力的公民机会。
辉格党和民主党的分歧不仅表现在对市场的态度上，。抛开安德鲁杰克逊想做一个强势总统不谈，民主党本身就主张限制政府的做法。政府在经济中的角色就是通过摧毁垄断和特权来鼓励竞争。为了遵循限制政府的做法，民主党人同样否定了道德准则属政府行为的范畴。民主党人确信，，而大体上，他们也反对人道主义立法。
相反地，政府权力在辉格党人眼中是积极的。他们认为，应该用政府权力保护个人权力和公众自由，在个人努力无效时扮演特殊角色。通过规划经济和竞争，政府可以保证机会平等。确实，辉格党的政府促进公众福利超过了经济所能承受的。个别来说，美国北部的辉格党还认为政府力量应该用来推广国家的道德福利。他们更加偏好社会重组法案和补助教育。
在某些方面两党对社会的完善是相似的。为了在投票中更具竞争力，辉格党和民主党都要在社会最大群体即农民和工人当中获得大力支持。任何一个党派若只讨好穷人或富人都不可能赢得选举。然而，辉格党偏好把精力花费在商业阶层上。辉格党博得了需要信用来贷款以在世界贸易中出售棉花和米的种地的人、渴望卖出余粮的农民和希望改变现状的工人的喜好。民主党则吸引了隔离于市场外或不习惯市场的农民、工业系统外的工人和想打破垄断开发新市场的新兴小企业家的欢心。辉格党在城镇市区还有完全融入市场经济的农村区域很强势，而民主党主宰了与市场隔绝，经济稍逊的半农耕地区。
THE EXPRESSION OF EMOTIONS
Joy and sadness are experienced by people in all cultures around the world, but how can we tell when other people are happy or despondent? It turns out that the expression of many emotions may be universal. Smiling is apparently a universal sign of friendliness and approval. Baring the teeth in a hostile way, as noted by Charles Darwin in the nineteenth century, may be a universal sign of anger. As the originator of the theory of evolution, Darwin believed that the universal recognition of facial expressions would have survival value. For example, facial expressions could signal the approach of enemies (or friends) in the absence of language.
Most investigators concur that certain facial expressions suggest the same emotions in all people. Moreover, people in diverse cultures recognize the emotions manifested by the facial expressions. In classic research Paul Ekman took photographs of people exhibiting the emotions of anger, disgust, fear, happiness, and sadness. He then asked people around the world to indicate what emotions were being depicted in them. Those queried ranged from European college students to members of the Fore, a tribe that dwells in the New Guinea highlands. All groups, including the Fore, who had almost no contact with Western culture, agreed on the portrayed emotions. The Fore also displayed familiar facial expressions when asked how they would respond if they were the characters in stories that called for basic emotional responses. Ekman and his colleagues more recently obtained similar results in a study of ten cultures in which participants were permitted to report that multiple emotions were shown by facial expressions. The participants generally agreed on which two emotions were being shown and which emotion was more intense.
Psychological researchers generally recognize that facial expressions reflect emotional states. In fact, various emotional states give rise to certain patterns of electrical activity in the facial muscles and in the brain. The facial-feedback hypothesis argues, however, that the causal relationship between emotions and facial expressions can also work in the opposite direction. According to this hypothesis, signals from the facial muscles ("feedback) are sent back to emotion centers of the brain, and so a person's facial expression can influence that person's emotional state. Consider Darwin's words: "The free expression by outward signs of an emotion intensifies it. On the other hand, the repression, as far as possible, of all outward signs softens our emotions." Can smiling give rise to feelings of good will, for example, and frowning to anger?
Psychological research has given rise to some interesting findings concerning the facial-feedback hypothesis. Causing participants in experiments to smile, for example, leads them to report more positive feelings and to rate cartoons (humorous drawings of people or situations) as being more humorous. When they are caused to frown, they rate cartoons as being more aggressive.
What are the possible links between facial expressions and emotion? One link is arousal, which is the level of activity or preparedness for activity in an organism. Intense contraction of facial muscles, such as those used in signifying fear, heightens arousal. Self-perception of heightened arousal then leads to heightened emotional activity. Other links may involve changes in brain temperature and the release of neurotransmitters (substances that transmit nerve impulses.) The contraction of facial muscles both influences the internal emotional state and reflects it. Ekman has found that the so-called Duchenne smile, which is characterized by ''crow’s feet" wrinkles around the eyes and a subtle drop in the eye cover fold so that the skin above the eye moves down slightly toward the eyeball, can lead to pleasant feelings.
Ekman’s observation may be relevant to the British expression “keep a stiff upper lip” as a recommendation for handling stress. It might be that a “stiff” lip suppresses emotional response -- as long as the lip is not quivering with fear or tension. But when the emotion that leads to stiffening the lip is more intense, and involves strong muscle tension, facial feedback may heighten emotional response.
Paragraph 1：Joy and sadness are experienced by people in all cultures around the world, but how can we tell when other people are happy or despondent? It turns out that the expression of many emotions may be universal. Smiling is apparently a universal sign of friendliness and approval. Baring the teeth in a hostile way, as noted by Charles Darwin in the nineteenth century, may be a universal sign of anger. As the originator of the theory of evolution, Darwin believed that the universal recognition of facial expressions would have survival value. For example, facial expressions could signal the approach of enemies (or friends) in the absence of language.
1.The word despondent in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Curious
○Unhappy
○Thoughtful
○Uncertain
2.The author mentions "Baring the teeth in a hostile way" in order to
○Differentiate one possible meaning of a particular facial expression from other meanings of it
○Support Darwin's theory of evolution
○Provide an example of a facial expression whose meaning is widely understood
○Contrast a facial expression that is easily understood with other facial expressions
The Fore also displayed familiar facial expressions when asked how
Paragraph 2: Most investigators concur that certain facial expressions suggest the same emotions in all people. Moreover, people in diverse cultures recognize the emotions manifested by the facial expressions. In classic research Paul Ekman took photographs of people exhibiting the emotions of anger, disgust, fear, happiness, and sadness. He then asked people around the world to indicate what emotions were being depicted in them. Those queried ranged from European college students to members of the Fore, a tribe that dwells in the New Guinea highlands. All groups, including the Fore, who had almost no contact with Western culture, agreed on the portrayed emotions.
they would respond if they were the characters in stories that called for basic emotional responses
. Ekman and his colleagues more recently obtained similar results in a study of ten cultures in which participants were permitted to report that multiple emotions were shown by facial expressions. The participants generally agreed on which two emotions were being shown and which emotion was more intense. 3. The word concur in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Estimate
○Agree
○Expect
○Understand
4.The word them in the passage refers to
○Emotions
○People
○Photographs ○Cultures
5.According to paragraph 2, which of the following was true of the Fore people of New Guinea?
○They did not want to be shown photographs.
○They were famous for their story-telling skills.
○They knew very little about Western culture.
○They did not encourage the expression of emotions.
6.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage?
Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
○The Fore's facial expressions indicated their unwillingness to pretend to be story characters.
○The Fore were asked to display familiar facial expressions when they told their stories.
○The Fore exhibited the same relationship of facial expressions and basic emotions that is seen in Western culture when they acted out stories.
○The Fore were familiar with the facial expressions and basic emotions of characters in stories.
Paragraph 3: Psychological researchers generally recognize that facial expressions reflect emotional states. In fact, various emotional states give rise to certain patterns of electrical activity in the facial muscles and in the brain. The facial-feedback hypothesis argues, however, that the causal relationship between emotions and facial expressions can also work in the opposite direction. According to this hypothesis, signals from the facial muscles ("feedback) are sent back to emotion centers of the brain, and so a person's facial expression can influence that person's emotional state. Consider Darwin's words: "The free expression by outward signs of an emotion intensifies it. On the other hand, the repression, as far as possible, of all outward signs softens our emotions." Can smiling give rise to feelings of good will, for example, and frowning to anger?
7.According to the passage, what did Darwin believe would happen to human emotions that were not expressed?
○They would become less intense.
○They would last longer than usual. ○They would cause problems later.
○They would become more negative
Paragraph4 ; Psychologicalresearch has given riseto some interesting findings concerning the
facial-feedback hypothesis
. Causing participants in experiments to smile, for example, leads them to report
more positive feelings and to rate cartoons (humorous drawings of people or situations) as being more humorous. When they are caused to frown, they rate cartoons as being more aggressive.
facial-feedback
8.According to the passage, research involving which of the following supported the hypothesis?
○The reactions of people in experiments to cartoons
○The tendency of people in experiments to cooperate
○The release of neurotransmitters by people during experiments
○The long-term effects of repressing emotions
9.The word rate in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Judge
○Reject
○Draw ○Want
Paragraph 6: Ekman’s observation may be relevant to the British expression “keep a stiff upper lip” as a recommendation for handling stress. It might be that a “stiff” lip suppresses emotional response -- as long as the lip is not quivering with fear or tension. But when the emotion that leads to stiffening the lip is more intense, and involves strong muscle tension, facial feedback may heighten emotional response.
10.The word relevant in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Contradictory
○Confusing
○Dependent ○Applicable
11.According to the passage, stiffening the upper lip may have which of the following effects?
○It first suppresses stress, then intensifies it.
○It may cause fear and tension in those who see it.
○It can damage the lip muscles.
○It may either heighten or reduce emotional response.
Paragraph 2: █Most investigators concur that certain facial expressions suggest the same emotions in all people. █Moreover, people in diverse cultures recognize the emotions manifested by the facial expressions. █In classic research Paul Ekman took photographs of people exhibiting the emotions of anger, disgust, fear, happiness, and sadness. █He then asked people around the world to indicate what emotions were being depicted in them. Those queried ranged from European college students to members of the Fore, a tribe that dwells in the New Guinea highlands. All groups, including the Fore, who had almost no contact with Western culture, agreed on the portrayed emotions. The Fore also displayed familiar facial expressions when asked how they would respond if they were the characters in stories that called for basic emotional responses. Ekman and his colleagues more recently obtained similar results in a study of ten cultures in which participants were permitted to report that multiple emotions were shown by facial expressions. The participants generally agreed on which two emotions were being shown and which emotion was more intense.
12.Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. This universality in the recognition of emotions was demonstrated by using rather simple methods.
Where would the sentence best fit?
13.Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. Thisquestionisworth2points.
Psychological research seems to confirm that people associate particular facial expressions with the same emotions across cultures.
●
●
●
Answer Choices
1.Artificially producing the Duchenne smile can cause a person to have pleasant feelings.
2.Facial expressions and emotional states interact with each other through a variety of feedback mechanisms.
3.People commonly believe that they can control their facial expressions so that their true emotions remain hidden.
4.A person's facial expression may reflect the person's emotional state.
5.Ekman argued that the ability to accurately recognize the emotional content of facial expressions was valuable for human beings.
6.Facial expressions that occur as a result of an individual's emotional state may themselves feed back information that influences the person's emotions.
参考答案：
1.○ 2
This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is despondent. It is highlighted in the passage. The correct answer is choice 2, "unhappy." The sentence in which the highlighted word appears uses despondent as a contrast to happy. Since unhappy is the opposite of happy, it provides the fullest possible contrast and is equivalent to the contrast between Joy and sadness at the beginning of the sentence.
2.○ 3
This is a Rhetorical Purpose question. It is asking you why the author mentions "baring the teeth in a hostile way" in the passage. This phrase is highlighted in the passage. The correct answer is choice 3; baring the teeth is an example of a facial expression whose meaning is widely understood. The central theme of paragraph 1 of the passage is facial expressions that are universal. The author provides various examples of such expressions, and baring the teeth is mentioned as a universal sign of anger. The other choices are all mentioned in the passage, but not in conjunction with baring the teeth, so they are all incorrect.
3.○ 2
This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is concur. It is highlighted in the passage. The correct answer is choice 2, "agree." Concur means to agree, so if investigators concur about the meaning of certain facial expressions, they agree on their meaning.
4.○ 3
This is a Reference question. The word being tested is them, and it is highlighted in the passage. This is a simple pronoun-referent item. The word them refers to the photographs that Paul Eckman showed to people from diverse cultures, so the correct answer is choice 3, "photographs."
5.○ 3
This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in paragraph 2.
The correct answer is choice 3, which states that the Fore people of New Zealand knew very little about
Western culture. The paragraph explicitly says that the Fore had almost no contact with Western culture. None of the other three choices is mentioned in connection with the Fore, so none of them is correct.
6.○ 3
This is a Sentence Simplification question. As with all of these items, a single sentence in the passage is highlighted:
TheForealsodisplayedfamiliarfacialexpressionswhenaskedhowtheywouldrespondiftheywerethe charactersinstoriesthatcalledforbasicemotionalresponses.
The correct answer is choice 3. It contains all of the essential ideas in the highlighted sentence without changing the meaning. This choice says that the Fore "exhibited the same relationship of facial and basic emotions that is seen in Western culture when they acted out stories." The sentence that precedes the highlighted sentence states that in a survey, the Fore agreed with Westerners on how various emotions are portrayed. Then the highlighted sentence says that in a different situation (story-telling) the Fores' expressions were also familiar; that is, these expressions were the same as those exhibited by Westerners in this situation. Choices 1 and 2 are incorrect because each one changes the highlighted sentence into a statement that is not true. Choice 4 is incorrect because it says that the Fore were familiar with the facial expressions of characters in stories. The highlighted sentence says that it was the investigators who were familiar with the Fores' expressions. This is a change in meaning, so it is incorrect.
7.○ 1
This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in the passage. The correct answer is choice 1, emotions that are not expressed become less intense. This is correct based on the direct quotation of Darwin in paragraph 3. In that quotation, Darwin says that emotions that are freely expressed become more intense, while "on the other hand those that are not freely expressed are "softened," meaning that they become less intense. Choices 2, 3, and 4 are all incorrect because there is nothing in the passage that indicates Darwin ever believed these things about expressing emotions. Some or all of them may actually be true, but there is nothing in this passage that supports them.
8.○ 1
This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in the passage. You can see that the phrase "The facial-feedback hypothesis" is highlighted where it first appears in the passage in paragraph 3. The correct answer is choice 1, research supporting this hypothesis came from studying experiments of the reactions of people to cartoons. This idea is found in paragraph 4, which uses these experiments as an example of how facial feedback works. Choice 3, the release of neurotransmitters, is mentioned in paragraph 5 but, not in connection with the facial-feedback hypothesis, so it is incorrect. Choices 2 and 4 are not explicitly mentioned at all in the passage.
9.○ 1
This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is rate, and it is highlighted in the passage. The correct answer is choice 1, "judge." Rate in this context means "to judge."
10.○ 4
This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is relevant, and it is highlighted in the passage. The correct answer is choice 4, "applicable. "Relevant means that Ekman's observation applies ("is applicable") to an expression.
11.○ 4
This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in the passage.
The correct answer is choice 4; stiffening the upper lip may either heighten or reduce emotional response. This is stated explicitly in paragraph 6 of the passage as a possible paradox in the relationship between facial expressions and emotions.
Choice 1 is incorrect because paragraph 6 contradicts it.
Choice 2 is incorrect because the passage mentions only the fear and tension of a person trying to keep a stiff upper lip, not any fear or tension that expression may cause in others.
Choice 3 is incorrect because there is no suggestion anywhere in the passage that stiffening the upper lip may damage lip muscles.
12.○3
This is an Insert Text question. You can see the four black squares in paragraph 2 that represent the possible answer choices here.
Mostinvestigatorsconcurthatcertainfacialexpressionssuggestthesameemotionsinallpeople. Moreover,peopleindiverseculturesrecognizetheemotionsmanifestedbythefacialexpressions.IIIn classicresearchPaulEkmantookphotographsofpeopleexhibitingtheemotionsofanger,disgust,fear, happiness,andsadness..Hethenaskedpeoplearoundtheworldtoindicatewhatemotionswerebeing depictedinthem.ThosequeriedrangedfromEuropeancollegestudentstomembersoftheFore,atribe thatdwellsintheNewGuineahighlands.Allgroups,includingtheFore,whohadalmostnocontact withWesternculture,agreedontheportrayedemotions.TheForealsodisplayedfamiliarfacial expressionswhenaskedhowtheywouldrespondiftheywerethecharactersinstoriesthatcalledfor basicemotionalresponses.Ekmanandhiscolleaguesmorerecentlyobtainedsimilarresultsinastudy oftenculturesinwhichparticipantswerepermittedtoreportthatmultipleemotionswereshownby facialexpressions.Theparticipantsgenerallyagreedonwhichtwoemotionswerebeingshownand whichemotionwasmoreintense.
The sentence provided, "This universality in the recognition of emotions was demonstrated by using rather simple methods," is best inserted at square 3. Square 3 is correct because the inserted sentence begins with the phrase "This universality." The universality being referred to is the fact, stated in the second sentence, that "people in diverse cultures recognize the emotions manifested by the facial expressions."
None of the other answer choices follows a sentence that contains a universal statement. Sentence 1 mentions that "Most investigators concur," which means that some do not. Therefore this is not a universal statement. Squares 2 and 4 are incorrect because there is nothing in either sentence to which "This universality" could refer.
13. ○2 4 6
This is a Prose Summary question. It is completed correctly below. The correct choices are 2, 4, and 6.
Choices 1, 3, and 5 are therefore incorrect.
参考译文
在世界范围内各种不同的文化里，人们都是要经历欢乐和悲伤的，但我们怎么区分其他人是高兴还是沮丧呢?事实上，很多情感的表达可能是通用的。比如，微笑显然表示友好和赞同。查尔斯达尔文是进化论的创始人，他在19 世纪曾指出，怀有敌意地露出牙齿表现的是愤怒的情绪，人类对面部表情的认知具有一定的生存值。例如，面部表情可以以非语言的方式帮你判断迎面而来的是敌还是友。
很多调查得出了同样的结论，即人类的某些面部表情表达的含义是通用的。此外，不同文化背景的人可以通过面部表情的识别来判断对方的情绪。在一个经典的研究项目中，保罗埃克曼拍下了一组人的照片，分别表示愤怒、厌恶、恐惧、幸福、悲伤。然后，他安排来自世界各地的人们识别照片中所表达的情感。这些人包括欧洲大学生，居住在新几内亚高地的部落等。包括几乎从未接触过西方文化的人在内的所有人得出了一致的答案。此外，问卷中还给出了一些人们熟悉的基本表情，要求答卷者回答如果你是故事中的人物你会作出哪种基本表情?埃克曼和他的同事们从近期的一项统计中得出了相同的结论，他们对来自10 个不同文化背景的参与者们进行了调查，参与者可以通过多种面部表情传达复杂的情绪。画面表达了哪两种情感?其中那张更严肃?答案基本一致。
研究心理学的学者们通常认为，面部表情可以反映人们内心的情绪状态。事实上，各种情绪状态的波动都会使得面部肌肉和大脑的电波活动增加。然而，脸部回馈假说论者们却坚持，面部表情和情绪之间的因果关系也可能是反的。他们认为，脸部肌肉承载的信号会被传至大脑的控制情绪的部位中，因此人类面部表情会影响他们的情绪。试想达尔文的话：“自由的情绪表达方式会增强心中的情感。相反，如果抑制这种表达则会削弱心中的情感。” 比如，微笑可以让你心情大好吗?皱眉会让你变得愤怒吗?
关于脸部回馈假说，心理学研究提供了一些有趣的发现。比如，让参与实验的人们微笑，他们会表现的更加积极，他们评价图片相对而言更加风趣幽默。当他们皱眉头时，评价图片则变得加咄咄逼人。
面部表情和内心情感之间存在什么样可能的联系呢?首先，是刺激。这是一个有机体活动的准备阶段。面部肌肉的紧张收缩会加剧这种刺激，如那些表现得极度的恐惧肌肉收缩。加强刺激的自我感知会加剧内心各种情绪。其次，他们的联系可能会涉及到大脑温度变化和神经递质的释放(传递神经冲动的物质)。面部肌肉的收缩反映并影响内心情绪状态。埃克曼发现，所谓的杜兴微笑，就是指眼睛周围的鱼尾纹和眼皮的微微下垂，引发眼睛表面的皮肤轻微朝着眼球方向下降，从而引起愉快的感觉。
埃克曼的看法可能与英国习语“保持咬紧牙关”有关，人们可以用过紧咬牙关缓解自身压力。很有可能是因为紧咬牙关抑制了消极情绪，只要嘴唇没紧张或者恐惧得发抖。但是，当内心情绪导致僵硬的嘴唇更加紧张时，面部表情强有力的收缩很有可能会加剧内心的情绪反应。