Trade and the Ancient Middle East
Trade was the mainstay of the urban economy in the Middle East, as caravans negotiated the surrounding desert, restricted only by access to water and by mountain ranges. This has been so since ancient times, partly due to the geology of the area, which is mostly limestone and sandstone, with few deposits of metallic ore and other useful materials Ancient demands for obsidian (a black volcanic rock useful for making mirrors and tools) led to trade with Armenia to the north, while jade for cutting tools was brought from Turkistan, and the precious stone lapis lazuli was imported from Afghanistan. One can trace such expeditions back to ancient Sumeria, the earliest known Middle Eastern civilization. Records show merchant caravans and trading posts set up by the Sumerians in the surrounding mountains and deserts of Persia and Arabia, where they traded grain for raw materials, such as timber and stones, as well as for metals and gems.
Reliance on trade had several important consequences. Production was generally in the hands of skilled individual artisans doing piecework under the tutelage of a master who was also the shop owner. In these shops differences of rank were blurred as artisans and masters labored side by side in the same modest establishment, were usually members of the same guild and religious sect, lived in the same neighborhoods, and often had assumed (or real) kinship relationships. The worker was bound to the master by a mutual contract that either one could repudiate, and the relationship was conceptualized as one of partnership.
This mode of craft production favored the growth of self-governing and ideologically egalitarian craft guilds everywhere in the Middle Eastern city. These were essentially professional associations that provided for the mutual aid and protection of their members, and allowed for the maintenance of professional standards. The growth of independent guilds was furthered by the fact that surplus was not a result of domestic craft production but resulted primarily from international trading; the government left working people to govern themselves, much as shepherds of tribal confederacies were left alone by their leaders. In the multiplicity of small-scale local egalitarian or quasi-egalitarian organizations for fellowship, worship, and production that flourished in this laissez-faire environment, individuals could interact with one another within a community of harmony and ideological equality, following their own popularly elected leaders and governing themselves by shared consensus while minimizing distinctions of wealth and power.
The mercantile economy was also characterized by a peculiar moral stance that is typical of people who live by trade-an attitude that is individualistic, calculating, risk taking, and adaptive to circumstances. As among tribespeople, personal relationships and a careful weighing of character have always been crucial in a mercantile economy with little regulation, where one's word is one's bond and where informal ties of trust cement together an international trade network. Nor have merchants and artisans ever had much tolerance for aristocratic professions of moral superiority, favoring instead an egalitarian ethic of the open market, where steady hard work, the loyalty of one's fellows, and ntrepreneurial skill make all the difference. And, like the pastoralists, Middle Eastern merchants and artisans unhappy with their environment could simply pack up and leave for greener pastures-an act of self-assertion wholly impossible in most other civilizations throughout history.
Dependence on long-distance trade also meant that the great empires of the Middle East were built both literally and figuratively on shifting sand. The central state, though often very rich and very populous, was intrinsically fragile, since the development of new international trade routes could undermine the monetary base and erode state power, as occurred when European seafarers circumvented Middle Eastern merchants after Vasco da Gama's voyage around Africa in the late fifteenth century opened up a southern route. The ecology of the region also permitted armed predators to prowl the surrounding barrens, which were almost impossible for a state to control. Peripheral peoples therefore had a great advantage in their dealings with the center, making government authority insecure and anxious.
Paragraph 1: Trade was the mainstay of the urban economy in the Middle East, as caravans negotiated the surrounding desert, restricted only by access to water and by mountain ranges. This has been so since ancient times, partly due to the geology of the area, which is mostly limestone and sandstone, with few deposits of metallic ore and other useful materials Ancient demands for obsidian (a black volcanic rock useful for making mirrors and tools) led to trade with Armenia to the north, while jade for cutting tools was brought from Turkistan, and the precious stone lapis lazuli was imported from Afghanistan. One can trace such expeditions back to ancient Sumeria, the earliest known Middle Eastern civilization. Records show merchant caravans and trading posts set up by the Sumerians in the surrounding mountains and deserts of Persia and Arabia, where they traded grain for raw materials, such as timber and stones, as well as for metals and gems.
1. According to paragraph 1, why has trade been so important throughout the history of the Middle East
○The rare and valuable metals and stones found in Middle Eastern deserts have always been in high demand in surrounding areas.
○Growing conditions throughout the Middle East are generally poor, forcing Middle Eastern people to depend on imported grain.
○Many useful and decorative raw materials cannot be found naturally in the Middle East but are available from neighboring regions.
○Frequent travel, due to limited water supplies in the Middle East, created many opportunities for trade with neighboring societies.
Paragraph 2: Reliance on trade had several important consequences. Production was generally in the hands of skilled individual artisans doing piecework under the tutelage of a master who was also the shop owner. In these shops differences of rank were blurred as artisans and masters labored side by side in the same modest establishment, were usually members of the same guild and religious sect, lived in the same neighborhoods, and often had assumed (or real) kinship relationships. The worker was bound to the master by a mutual contract that either one couldrepudiate, and the relationship was conceptualized as one of partnership.
2. The word "repudiate" in the passage is closest in meaning to
○respect
○reject
○review
○revise
3. According to paragraph 2, how did Middle Eastern shop owners treat their workers?
○Workers were ranked according to their skill level, with the most-experienced artisans becoming partial owners of the shop.
○Shop owners treated different workers differently depending on how much the workers had in common with their masters.
○Workers were bound to their masters by unbreakable contracts that strictly defined the terms of their partnership.
○The shop owner worked alongside the workers and often considered them partner and members of the family.
Paragraph 3: This mode of craft production favored the growth of self-governing and ideologically egalitarian craft guilds everywhere in the Middle Eastern city. These were essentially professional associations that provided for the mutual aid and protection of their members, and allowed for the maintenance of professional standards. The growth of independent guilds was furthered by the fact that surplus was not a result of domestic craft production but resulted primarily from international trading; the government left working people to govern themselves, much as shepherds of tribal confederacies were left alone by their leaders. In the multiplicity of small-scale local egalitarian or quasi-egalitarian organizations for fellowship, worship, and production that flourished in this laissez-faire environment, individuals could interact with one another within a community of harmony and ideological equality, following their own popularly elected leaders and governing themselves by sharedconsensus while minimizing distinctions of wealth and power.
4. The author includes the information that surplus was not a result of domestic craft production but resulted primarily from international trading in order to
○support the claim that the mode of production made possible by the craft guilds w very good for trade
○contrast the economic base of the city government with that of the tribal confederacies
○provide a reason why the government allowed the guilds to be self-controlled
○suggest that the government was missing out on a valuable opportunity to tax the guilds
5. According to paragraph 3, all of the following are true of the Middle Eastern craft guilds EXCEPT:
○The guilds were created to support workers and to uphold principles of high-quality craft production.
○Each guild was very large and included members from a broad geographic area.
○The leaders of the guilds were chosen by popular vote.
○All guild members were treated as equals.
6. The word "consensus" in the passage is closest in meaning to
○authority
○responsibility
○custom
○agreement
Paragraph 4: The mercantile economy was also characterized by a peculiar moral stance that is typical of people who live by trade-an attitude that is individualistic, calculating, risk taking, and adaptive to circumstances. As among tribes people, personal relationships and a careful weighing of character have always been crucial in a mercantile economy with little regulation, where one's word is one's bond and where informal ties of trust cement together an international trade network. Nor have merchants and artisans ever had much tolerance for aristocratic professions of moral superiority, favoring instead an egalitarianethic of the open market, where steady hard work, the loyalty of one's fellows, and entrepreneurial skill make all the difference. And, like the pastoralists, Middle Eastern merchants and artisans unhappy with their environment could simply pack up and leave for greener pastures-an act of self-assertion wholly impossible in most other civilizations throughout history.
7. According to paragraph 4, which of the following was NOT necessary for success in the mercantile economy?
○Good business sense
○Reliable associates
○Family wealth
○Constant effort
8. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
○Tribes people were comfortable forming personal relationships with merchants, who, like them, were bound by their promises to one another.
○Because trade was not formally regulated, merchants were careful about whom they trusted and often conducted business with people they knew personally.
○While trade among merchants relied somewhat on regulation, among tribes people trade was based on personal relationships and careful character evaluation.
○Because tribes people were bound only by their promises to one another, personal relationships were formed only after careful weighing of character.
9. The word "ethic" in the passage is closest in meaning to
○set of moral principles
○division of labor
○economic system
○test of character
10. According to paragraph 4, what choice did Middle Eastern merchants and artisans have that many other people have not had?
○If they were unhappy in the mercantile environment, they could draw on personal connections to find a different kind of work.
○They were allowed to assert their opinions without having to listen to aristocratic professions of moral superiority.
○Following the example of the pastoralists, they could demand, and receive, better working conditions.
○If they didn't like their environment, they could move somewhere else.
Paragraph 5: Dependence on long-distance trade also meant that the great empires of the Middle East were built both literally and figuratively on shifting sand. The central state, though often very rich and very populous, was intrinsically fragile, since the development of new international trade routes could undermine the monetary base and erode state power, as occurred when European seafarers circumvented Middle Eastern merchants after Vasco da Gama's voyage around Africa in the late fifteenth century opened up a southern route. The ecology of the region also permitted armed predators to prowl the surrounding barrens, which were almost impossible for a state to control. Peripheral peoples therefore had a great advantage in their dealings with the center, making government authority insecure and anxious.
11. The word "intrinsically" in the passage is closest in meaning to
○fundamentally
○surprisingly
○consequently
○particularly
12.In paragraph 5, why does the author mention the new trade route opened up by Vasco da Gama's fifteenth century voyage around Africa?
○To provide evidence that European seafarers took every opportunity to bypass Middle Eastern merchants
○To present an instance in which Middle Eastern states lost money and power because of their reliance on long-distance trade
○To argue this new route became necessary when European seafarers wanted to avoid Middle Eastern states whose central power had begun to erode
○To explain how da Gama helped European traders avoid the dangerous predators prowling the areas surrounding Middle Eastern cities
Paragraph2: Reliance on trade had several important consequences. ■Production was generally in the hands of skilled individual artisans doing piecework under the tutelage of a master who was also the shop owner. ■In these shops differences of rank were blurred as artisans and masters labored side by side in the same modest establishment, were usually members of the same guild and religious sect, lived in the same neighborhoods, and often had assumed (or real) kinship relationships. ■The worker was bound to the master by a mutual contract that either one could repudiate, and the relationship was conceptualized as one of partnership. ■
13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.
For one thing, it created a demand for finished goods to be sold both locally and abroad.
Where would the sentence best fit?
14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.
Since ancient times. reliance on trade has shaped the culture and organizational structure of Middle Eastern societies.
●
●
●
Answer Choices
○ Persian and Arabian merchants traveled great distances to sell their finished goods at the marketplaces of ancient Sumeria.
○ Revenue from trade was unevenly distributed, causing Middle Eastern societies to be characterized by growing distinctions in wealth and power.
○ Qualities that were valued in the mercantile economy included individualism, hard work, loyalty, and the willingness to take risks.
○ As production increased, centralized control over production also increased, leading in turn to more-centralized control over fellowship and worship.
○ Crafts were produced by skilled artisans working in close, egalitarian relationships with their masters and other fellow guild members.
○ The stability of Middle Eastern governments was threatened by their lack of control over international trade patterns and over their own peripheral territories.#p#副标题#e#
参考答案：
1. ○3
2. ○2
3. ○4
4. ○3
5. ○2
6. ○4
7. ○3
8. ○2
9. ○1
10. ○4
11. ○1
12. ○2
13. ○1
14. Qualities that were
Crafts were produced
The stability of Middle
参考翻译：古代中东与贸易
自从中东地区的商旅们成功跨越周围的戈壁，只有水路和山峦还是障碍时，贸易就成为了中东地区城市经济的主要支柱。这种情况(贸易是主要支柱)从古至今都是如此，一部分原因是中东地区的地质环境--多为沙石和石灰岩，金属矿藏和其它有用材料很少。古代对黑曜石(一种火山岩，可以用来制作镜子和工具)的需求引发了(中东地区)与北方的亚美尼亚之间的贸易;用作切削工具的玉石从土耳其斯坦购买;而稀有贵重的琉璃青金石是从阿富汗地区进口。探险活动最早可以追溯至古苏美尔--已知最早的中东文明。记录显示商队和贸易站由古苏美尔人在周围山区及古波斯和阿拉伯的沙漠地区建立。
过于依赖贸易造成了一些重大影响。生产工作一般在师傅也是店主的监视下，由熟练的工匠计件完成。在这些店铺中，阶级差异并不明显，，通常有着相同的宗教信仰，而且又是街坊邻里，彼此之间还很有可能(没准真的)是亲戚关系。工人和店主双方具有劳务关系，任一方都有权终止，这是合作关系中的一种。
这种生产模式有助于自主管理制度的发展，在中东城市里意识形态上秉持人人平等的手工行会比比皆是。他们实质上是专门提供互助且保护组织成员的协会组织，同时注重维持行业标准。独立行会不断增加，是因为剩余价值的产生并非由于国内生产，而是主要来自于国际间的贸易活动。政府允许劳动人民自主管理，这和部落首领让牧羊者们离群索居一样。在当地，团体、信仰以及生产方面的小型平等主义团体或类似平等主义的组织在这种自由放任的环境里遍地开花，和谐平等的团体中，成员之间相互影响，追随着他们自己选举的领导人，在缩小财富和权力差距的同时通过分享意见进行自我管理。
商品经济也通过靠贸易为生的商人所秉持的特定道德立场表现出来。他们具有独立自主、精于计算、敢于冒险和随遇而安的优秀品质。在部落成员之间，,商品经济里人们出口成契，诚信基础上的非正式联系形成了一个国际贸易网络。从没有商人和工匠对贵族职业的道德优越感如此宽容，这很好地促进了开放市场中的平等主义，人们辛勤工作，忠诚跟随，具备企业家精神非常重要。而且，这和畜牧文明类似，中东的商人和工匠们若对自己所处的环境不满意，简单收拾一下就可迁移到一个更加丰茂的牧场--纵观历史，如此随性而为的行为在其他多数文明中是无法想象的。
对远距离贸易的依赖也意味着伟大的中东帝国得以建立在这片飘忽不定却又无比真实的沙土之中。帝国中部尽管非常富足繁盛，但本质上脆弱不堪，因为新的国际贸易线路的出现会动摇经济基础并腐蚀国家权力。就在15世纪晚期达伽马绕过非洲开辟南部航线以后，欧洲的水手们便绕过中东商人改走南部航线了。该地区的生态环境也允许武装"捕食者"在周围的荒漠潜行，几乎很难被帝国控制。，这让政府惴惴不安。
苏美尔人(也译作苏默)，是历史上两河流域(底格里斯河和幼发拉底河中下游)早期的定居民族，他们所建立的苏美尔文明是整个美索不达米亚文明中最早，同时也是全世界最早产生的文明。
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