2014年3月22日
今日阅读考试两套试卷
第一套
第一篇
版本一：讲的是关于children play的几个阶段 从一开始吃手指到后来开始function play 后来又说 他们玩的pretend play 对他们有什么影响什么的 反正是good effect
版本二：小朋友的学习方法 主要有两类，一种是小的时候，可能只能按玩具电话的按键， 大一点以后一种重要的技能就get了，那就是演!小宝宝学会了装…比如，爹娘拿一空茶壶装坐水洒了，丢给宝宝一块抹布，宝宝就会假嘛假嘛开始擦，然后，熊孩子们渐渐地学会了过家家这类的高级玩意儿，他们甚至可以停下来研究一下接下来该怎么演(此处有考题)，最后，事实证明，爱演的孩子有很多优点，比如小朋友们都喜欢和他玩，而且，举个小例子，小朋友如果不爱吃什么，你告诉他要吃，因为有英语，他就会对着他的洋娃娃说“宝贝乖，要吃这个，有营养”，然后他就自己也吃了……
(我居然用的是他不是她……)
点评：本文属于心理学文章，话题涉及儿童玩耍的几个阶段，从机经回忆来看，应该涉及到重复阶段，functional阶段和pretend阶段。本文理解重点在于把握到不同阶段玩耍的特征以及对儿童产生的影响，在TPO中有篇类似话题文章，Role of Play in Development。具体参考以下内容：
In young children, play is frequently associated with cognitive development and socialization. Play that promotes learning and recreation often incorporates toys, props, tools or other playmates. Play can consist of an amusing, pretend or imaginary activity alone or with another. Some forms of play are rehearsals or trials for later life events, such as "play fighting", pretend social encounters (such as parties with dolls), or flirting. Modern findings in neuroscience suggest that play promotes flexibility of mind, including adaptive practices such as discovering multiple ways to achieve a desired result, or creative ways to improve or reorganize a given situation
As children get older, they engage in board games, video games and computer play, and in this context the word gameplay is used to describe the concept and theory of play and its relationship to rules and game design.
Learning through play has been long recognized as a critical aspect of childhood and child development. Some of the earliest studies of play started in the 1890s with G. Stanley Hall, the father of the child study movement that sparked an interest in the developmental, mental and behavioral world of babies and children. Play also promotes healthy development of parent-child bonds, establishing social, emotional and cognitive developmental milestones that help them relate to others, manage stress, and learn resiliency.
Modern research in the field of affective neuroscience (the neural mechanisms of emotion) has uncovered important links between role play and neurogenesis in the brain. For example, researcher Roger Caillois used the word ilinx to describe the momentary disruption of perception that comes from forms of physical play that disorient the senses, especially balance. In addition, evolutionary psychologists have begun to explore the phylogenetic relationship between higher intelligence in humans and its relationship to play, i.e., the relationship of play to the progress of whole evolutionary groups as opposed to the psychological implications of play to a specific individual.
第二篇
版本一：讲了地球的结构 说科学家没法直接探测地球岩层的成分 然后说了各种实验方法 比如研究矿物质和火山爆发还有通过一种热力仪来探测温度
版本二：关于地球的内部构造。地球可以大致粗略分为四层，我们对外面两层都很了解，可是，里面的不了解，即便俄罗斯一个地下矿井很深也无能为力。但是通过模拟，科学家在们在慢慢弄懂其中的奥秘。
点评：本文属于地质学相关文章，从机经来看涉及到地球构造(crust, upper mantle, lower mantle和the core)以及地质研究方法，在TPO里有类似关注研究方法的文章，如Methods of Studying Infant Perception等。文章的理解重点在于不同研究方法的应用、发现、局限性等。具体内容请参照如下：
Although the interior of the Earth is not directly visible, scientists can use a variety of methods to create a profile of the Earth's crust, mantle and core. Tracking seismic waves, studying the behavior of the Earth and other planets in space, and analyzing rock and mineral samples are key strategies for exploring the composition and behavior of the Earth's deep core.
The Earth's Interior
Below the surface, the Earth's interior consists of three main parts: the crust, the mantle and the core. The crust, which is most accessible for study, includes the Earth's surface and the tectonic plates, which are in constant motion, creating earthquakes and new geological features. Below the crust lies the mantle, composed of silicate rocks which are so hot they can liquefy while moving toward the crust and drive seismic activity. At the center of the planet, the core consists of two parts, a liquid outer core and a hot, solid inner core composed primarily of iron.
Seismic Tomography
Much information about the Earth's interior comes from the study of seismic activity. Sophisticated instruments placed deep in the earth track seismic waves, which vary in speed and structure in different parts of the Earth's mantle and core. For example, the outer core transmits few shear waves, a type of seismic movement, suggesting that it is liquid rather than solid. Recent advances in seismic tomography of the Earth allow researchers to create computer generated 3D images of the Earth's interior.
The Earth In Space
Over 300 years ago, Sir Isaac Newton calculated the Earth's core density by observing the movement of planets and the force of gravity. His observations remain largely correct today, and monitoring of the Earth in space, as well as the behavior of the moon and planets, continues to provide information about the relative density of the Earth's core and its composition. The study of neighboring planets such as Mars also provides clues about the nature of Earth's formation and the behavior of its deep inner parts.
Rock and Mineral Analyses
Laboratory analyses of rock and mineral samples from the Earth's crust and surface, as well as those obtained from deep probes, provide important information about the temperature and composition of the deeper layers of the Earth's interior. Experiments on rocks at high temperatures and pressures provide clues about the behavior of rocks and minerals in the mantle and core. Analyses of lava samples and volcanic rock reveal information about the composition and behavior of various types of rock, liquid or solid, at various depths in the Earth's interior.
第三篇
版本一：和去年12月15日那个大猩猩是一样的 就是说了一个机构 好像是ASL
他们就训练大猩猩学习手势 并让他们模仿训练者 一共说了两个大猩猩 然后反驳了以前的一个结论什么的
版本二：关于猩猩有没有可能说人话，做了两个实验，都证明猩猩最后是copy主导的需求型，虽然可以记得手语动作，但是不可能像可爱的小baby一样自由地表达自己的感情
点评：本文属于语言学和心理学跨界话题，重复2013年12月15日大陆阅读，主要涉及的是Chimpanzee学习语言的能力，背景知识不生僻，考生重点注意从原文出发解题。具体内容请参照如下：
Project Nim was an attempt to go further than Project Washoe. Terrace and his colleagues aimed to use more thorough experimental techniques, and the intellectual discipline of the experimental analysis of behavior, so that the linguistic abilities of the apes could be put on a more secure footing.
Roger Fouts wrote:
Since 98.7% of the DNA in humans and chimps is identical, some scientists (but not Noam Chomsky) believed that a chimp raised in a human family, and using ASL (American Sign Language), would shed light on the way language is acquired and used by humans. Project Nim, headed by behavioral psychologist Herbert Terrace at Columbia University, was conceived in the early 1970s as a challenge to Chomsky's thesis that only humans have language.
Attention was particularly focused on Nim's ability to make different responses to different sequences of signs and to emit different sequences in order to communicate different meanings. However, the results, according to Fouts, were not as impressive as had been reported from the Washoe project. Terrace, however, was skeptical of Project Washoe and, according to the critics, went to great lengths to discredit it.
While Nim did learn 125 signs, Terrace concluded that he had not acquired anything the researchers were prepared to designate worthy of the name "language" (as defined by Noam Chomsky) although he had learned to repeat his trainers' signs in appropriate contexts. Language is defined as a "doubly articulated" system, in which signs are formed for objects and states and then combined syntactically, in ways that determine how their meanings will be understood. For example, "man bites dog" and "dog bites man" use the same set of words but because of their ordering will be understood by speakers of English as denoting very different meanings.
One of Terrace's colleagues, Laura-Ann Petitto, estimated that with more standard criteria, Nim's true vocabulary count was closer to 25 than 125. However, other students who cared for Nim longer than Petitto disagreed with her and with the way that Terrace conducted his experiment. Critics assert that Terrace used his analysis to destroy the movement of ape-language research. Terrace argued that none of the chimps were using language, because they could learn signs but could not form them syntactically as language, as described above.
Terrace and his colleagues concluded that the chimpanzee did not show any meaningful sequential behavior that rivaled human grammar. Nim's use of language was strictly pragmatic, as a means of obtaining an outcome, unlike a human child's, which can serve to generate or express meanings, thoughts or ideas. There was nothing Nim could be taught that could not equally well be taught to a pigeon using the principles of operant conditioning. The researchers therefore questioned claims made on behalf of Washoe, and argued that the apparently impressive results may have amounted to nothing more than a "Clever Hans" effect, not to mention a relatively informal experimental approach.
Terrace's skeptical approach to the claims that chimpanzees could learn and understand sign language led to heated disputes with Allen and Beatrix Gardner, who initiated the Washoe Project. The Gardners argued that Terrace's approach to training, and the use of many different assistants, did not harness the chimpanzee's full cognitive and linguistic resources.
Roger Fouts, of the Washoe Project, also claims that Project Nim was poorly conducted because it did not use strong enough methodology to avoid such comparisons and efficiently defend against them.[clarification needed] He also shares the Gardners' view that the process of acquiring language skills through natural social interactions gives substantially better results than behavioral conditioning. Fouts argues, based on his own experiments, that pure conditioning can lead to the use of language as a method mainly of getting rewards rather than of raising communication abilities. Fouts later reported, however, that a community of ASL-speaking chimpanzees (including Washoe herself) was spontaneously using this language as a part of their internal communication system. They have even directly taught ASL signs to their children (Loulis) without human help or intervention. This means not only that can they use the language but that it has become a significant part of their lives.
The controversy is still not fully resolved, in part because the financial and other costs of carrying out language-training experiments with apes make replication studies difficult to mount. The definitions of both "language" and "imitation", and the question of how language-like Nim's performance was, remain controversial.
第二套
第一篇
版本一：阅读有一篇介绍白令海峡，古代现代乱七八糟的
版本二：之前有A，B，S三个大陆，连在一起 B大陆和landscape和现在差距很大 当时有很多有牙齿的大型哺乳动物在那里生活 因为马也生活在那里 而马不能在snow cover的地方找食物 所以推断出那里的风很大 会把雪吹开 然后有两个人，DG和C持不同的观点，各一段 DG说那里有很多的vegetation C说因为那个年代发现的花粉很少，所以vegetation应该也很少 最后一段说有个新发现，证明DG是对的，但是C也有一部分对
因为那里的植物类似于苔藓，但是根很浅，长牙的大型哺乳动物也能吃，但这个玩意儿不产花粉
点评：本文属于生物类话题，从机经来看应该重复的是2012年7月28日北美题白令海峡的地貌特征这篇。文章涉及到白令海峡的地貌特征，两个不同学者的理论，并给到证据，在最后一部分给到评论总结性内容。具体内容请参照如下：
Beringia is a loosely defined region surrounding the Bering Strait, the Chukchi Sea, and the Bering Sea. It includes parts of Chukotka and Kamchatka in Russia as well as Alaska in the United States. In historical contexts it also includes the Bering land bridge, an ancient land bridge roughly 1,000 miles (1,600 km) wide (north to south) at its greatest extent, which connected Asia with North America at various times during the Pleistocene ice ages.
The ice-free heartland of Beringia served as a giant ecological refugium during maximal glaciation for those tundra plants that could survive its windswept Arctic desert conditions. But Beringia constantly transformed its ecosystem as the changing climate affected the environment, determining which plants and animals were able to survive. The land mass could be a barrier as well as a bridge: during colder periods, glaciers advanced and precipitation levels dropped. During warmer intervals, clouds, rain and snow altered soils and drainage patterns. Fossil remains show that spruce, birch and poplars once grew beyond their northernmost modern range today, indicating that there were periods when the climate was warmer and wetter. The environmental conditions were not homogenous in Beringia. Recent stable isotope studies of woolly mammoth bone collagen demonstrate that western Beringia (Siberia) was colder and drier than eastern Beringia (Alaska and Yukon), which were more ecologically diverse. Mastodons, which depended on shrubs for food, were uncommon in the open dry tundra landscape characteristic of Beringia during the colder periods. In this tundra, mammoths flourished instead. The extinct pine species Pinus matthewsii has been described from Pliocene sediments in the Yukon areas of the refugium
Biogeographical evidence demonstrates previous connections between North America and Asia. Similar dinosaur fossils occur both in Asia and in North America. For instance the dinosaur Saurolophus was found in both Mongolia and western North America. Relatives of Troodon, Triceratops, and even Tyrannosaurus rex all came from Asia.
Fossils in China demonstrate a migration of Asian mammals into North America around 55 million years ago. By 20 million years ago, evidence in North America shows a further interchange of mammalian species. Some, like the ancient saber-toothed cats, have a recurring geographical range: Europe, Africa, Asia, and North America. The only way they could reach the New World was by the Bering land bridge. Had this bridge not existed at that time, the fauna of the world would be very different.
Researchers have started to use molecular phylogenetics to trace the history of faunal exchange and diversification, through the genetic history of parasites and pathogens of North American ungulates. An international Beringian Coevolution Project is collaborating to provide material to assess the pattern and timing of faunal exchange and the potential impact of past climatic events on differentiation.
第二篇 风媒传递花粉
点评：从机经来看应该重复的是2012年10月28日大陆题的花粉传播那篇。理解重点主要在不同情况下，花粉传播与不同媒介之间的关系。具体内容请参照下文：
The transfer of pollen grains to the female reproductive structure (pistil in angiosperms) is called pollination. This transfer can be mediated by the wind, in which case the plant is described as anemophilous (literally wind-loving). Anemophilous plants typically produce great quantities of very lightweight pollen grains, sometimes with air-sacs. Non-flowering seed plants (e.g. pine trees) are characteristically anemophilous. Anemophilous flowering plants generally have inconspicuous flowers. Entomophilous (literally insect-loving) plants produce pollen that is relatively heavy, sticky and protein-rich, for dispersal by insect pollinators attracted to their flowers. Many insects and some mites are specialized to feed on pollen, and are called palynivores.
In non-flowering seed plants, pollen germinates in the pollen chamber, located beneath the micropyle, underneath the integuments of the ovule. A pollen tube is produced, which grows into the nucellus to provide nutrients for the developing sperm cells. Sperm cells of Pinophyta and Gnetophyta are without flagella, and are carried by the pollen tube, while those of Cycadophyta and Ginkgophyta have many flagella.
When placed on the stigma of a flowering plant, under favorable circumstances, a pollen grain puts forth a pollen tube, which grows down the tissue of the style to the ovary, and makes its way along the placenta, guided by projections or hairs, to the micropyle of an ovule. The nucleus of the tube cell has meanwhile passed into the tube, as does also the generative nucleus, which divides (if it hasn't already) to form two sperm cells. The sperm cells are carried to their destination in the tip of the pollen-tube.
第三篇
海洋生物捕食
我没怎么看懂 topic讲的是海里的鱼的找食物的strategy 什么有的鱼吃浮藻 然后有的鱼吃这种吃浮藻的鱼
点评：本文属于生物类文章，从机经来看涉及到海洋生物的捕食习惯，捕食类话题属于常见话题，所以背景知识不难。具体内容请参照如下：
All animals are heterotrophic, meaning they must eat other organisms, living or dead, to acquire organic nutrients. A large percentage of an animal's life is occupied with acquiring food. Almost every living species is eaten by something else, but food varies in its spatial distribution, seasonal availability, predictability, how well hidden or easily detected it is, how much competition for it exists, and whether or not it can resist being eaten. Consequently, animals have a variety of feeding strategies to meet these challenges.
Following are some of the basic methods that animals use to acquire food. Many animals use mixed strategies, shifting from one method to another as different kinds of food become available, or using combinations of methods simultaneously.
Grazing
Grazers crop grasses and other ground plants on land or scrape algae and other organisms from surfaces in the water. They include animals as diverse as snails, grasshoppers, geese, rodents, kangaroos, and hoofed mammals. Grass and algae are palatable foods that offer little or no resistance to being eaten, but are adapted to survive grazing and quickly replace the lost biomass. A disadvantage of such food, however, is that it is nutrient poor. Grazers therefore must consume a large quantity of it and spend a larger percentage of their time eating than predators do. While eating, they are vulnerable to attack. To eat without being eaten requires alertness and quick escape responses. Grazing mammals tend to form herds: There is safety in numbers, and the abundance of grass supports the high population density of grazing herds.
Browsing
Terrestrial browsers nip foliage from trees and shrubs. They include caterpillars, tortoises, grouse, giraffes, goats, antelopes, deer, pandas, koalas, and monkeys. In aquatic habitats, browsers feed on algae, aquatic plants, and corals, and include sea slugs, sea urchins, parrot fish, ducks, and manatees. Browsers depend on food that is less abundant and widespread than grass, so they tend to form smaller groups or to be solitary and secretive.
Eating Nectar, Fruits, Pollen, and Seeds
Plants provide an abundance of food other than foliage, some of it for the purpose of rewarding animals. Sweet nectar rewards bees, flies, moths, butterflies, and bats that spread pollen from one flower to another, and sugary fruits entice birds, monkeys, fruit bats, bears, elephants, and humans to eat them and spread the indigestible seeds throughout the countryside. Pollen and seeds, being a plant's reproductive capital, are not meant to be eaten, but many bees, flies, and beetles nevertheless consume pollen, while birds, squirrels, and harvester ants take their toll on the seed crop.
Burrowing
Some animals burrow into their food, eating a tunnel as they go. These include many herbivores such as bark beetles, fly and moth larvae called leaf miners, and wood-boring termites. In the sea, unusual clams and crustaceans called shipworms and gribbles, respectively, burrow through wooden piers and ships, causing enormous destruction. Earthworms and many marine worms burrow in soil and sediment, eating indiscriminately as they go, digesting the organic matter and defecating the indigestible sand and other particles. Burrowing animals not only have the benefit of being surrounded by food, but also are less exposed to predators.
Filter-feeding
Filter-feeding is a common strategy in aquatic habitats, especially the ocean. It uses anatomical devices that act as strainers to remove small food items from the water. Sessile filter-feeders, such as barnacles, oysters, fanworms, brachiopods, and tunicates sit in one place, pumping sea water and straining plankton from it. Other filter-feeders are mobile. Herring swim with their mouths open, letting water flow through the gill rakers, which strain small particles of food from it. Flamingoes take in mouthfuls of water and mud, then force the water through the fringed edges of their bills, which serve as strainers that retain food such as brine shrimp, aquatic insects, and plankton in the mouth. Small and even microscopic food in the water may not seem very abundant, yet the largest animals on Earth—the basking sharks, whale sharks, manta rays, and baleen whales, including the largest species alive today, the great blue whale—nourish themselves entirely in this way. Filter-feeding is more common in the ocean than in fresh water, because plankton is less concentrated in fresh water.
Suspension and Deposit Feeding
Another form of small particulate food in aquatic habitats is the steady "rain" of organic matter that settles to the bottom: living and dead plankton and bits of dead animal, plant, and algal tissue. Suspension feeders pick this material from the water as it falls and deposit feeders consume it after it settles on the bottom. Many sea anemones, corals, marine worms, and crinoids, for example, spread out an array of tentacles and capture whatever settles on them. Other worms, some bivalves, brittle stars, and sea cucumbers spread sticky palps, arms, or tentacles over the substrate , picking up the organic matter that has settled there. The feeding arms or tentacles of many of these animals have ciliated , sticky grooves. Food becomes caught in mucus, and cilia steadily propel the mucus strand toward the mouth. Sea cucumbers, however, reach out and pick up sediment on their sticky tentacles, then draw the tentacles into their mouths and remove the food, like licking jam off one's fingers.
Predation
Predators are animals that depend on killing other animals outright. Since the other animals have evolved defenses against predation—hard shells, toxins, the ability to fight back, or simply running or flying away—predators have evolved a wide range of strategies for capturing their prey. Some hunt in packs (wolves), some collaborate to ambush prey (lions), some are stalkers (solitary cats), some use lures to attract unsuspecting prey (snapping turtles and angler fish), some employ camouflage so their prey does not notice them until it is too late (praying mantids), and some use snares (spiders, jellyfish).
Symbiosis
Symbionts are animals that live in a close physical relationship with another animal, the host, from which they benefit. Unlike predators, symbionts do not benefit from the death of their hosts; ideally, they steal food or consume host tissue at a rate that the host can tolerate, allowing the host to survive. Symbiosis includes mutually beneficial relationships (mutualism); relationships in which one partner benefits, typically by stealing food from the host or eating its tissues, but the host is neither benefited nor harmed (commensalism); and relationships in which the host is harmed, usually because the symbiont consumes nutrients or tissue faster than the host can replace it (parasitism). The host is often both food and shelter for its symbiont.
Scavenging
Finally, and fortunately for the planet's "hygiene," many animals belong to a community of scavengers that feed on organic refuse such as manure (dung beetles, flies), leaf litter (snails, millipedes, earthworms), and dead animals (blowflies, vultures, hyenas, storks). The family name of the vultures, Cathartidae, is from the Greek katharos, meaning "to cleanse." Disgusting as some people may find their habits, we would be infinitely more disgusted with an environment from which such scavengers were lacking.
词汇题
impliable
continuous
coping with no wonder unsurprised well-known understandable
plausible = reasonable
respectively = separately
domain = field of expertise
remnant
significant
flexible
acquire
random
continually
investigate
potential
drawback