2015年11月28日
第一篇
题材划分： 农业发展
主要内容：某种文明的集中趋势。第一段讲某个地区的农业发展，人们的耕作土地肥沃，农业技术进步，粮产增多，第二段将统治阶级把经年累月多余的粮食收集起来保存，在特定的时期粮产少的时候可以拿出来分配(因为有的高原地区的气候并不是很高产)，另一些时候这些粮食和财富会在祭祀的时候拿出来供人们吃喝，目的是为了吸引更多的人来定居。第三段吸引了人们之后，统治阶级会向劳动者征收一些税。第四段讲统治阶级规划统治疆域的时候有意建设一些围墙。仅仅留一个口可以供人们出入。证据表明，一些不同的手工艺者的产品带有不同地域的特色，因为太过封闭。
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TPO21- The Origins of Agriculture
相关背景知识：
Agriculture is the cultivation of animals, plants, fungi, and other life forms for food, fiber, biofuel, medicinal and other products used to sustain and enhance human life. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured the development of civilization. The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science. The history of agriculture dates back thousands of years, and its development has been driven and defined by greatly different climates, cultures, and technologies. In the civilized world, industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture farming has become the dominant agricultural methodology.
Agriculture involving domestication of plants was developed around 11,500 years ago separately in both the Fertile crescent and at Chogha Golan in modern day Iran, where wild barley, wheat and lentils were cultivated and with domesticated forms of wheat appeared about 9,800 years ago. Agriculture has undergone significant developments since the time of the earliest cultivation. The Fertile Crescent of Western Asia, Egypt and India were sites of the earliest planned sowing and harvesting of plants that had previously been gathered in the wild. Independent development of agriculture occurred in northern and southern China, Africa's Sahel, New Guinea, parts of India and several regions of the Americas. Agricultural techniques such as irrigation, crop rotation, the application of fertilizers were developed soon after the Neolithic Revolution but have made significant strides in the past 200 years. The Haber-Bosch method for synthesizing ammonium nitrate represented a major breakthrough and allowed crop yields to overcome previous constraints.
In the past century, agriculture in the developed nations, and to a lesser extent in the developing world, has been characterized by enhanced productivity, the replacement of human labor by synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, selective breeding, and mechanization. The recent history of agriculture has been closely tied with a range of political issues including water pollution, biofuels, genetically modified organisms, tariffs and farm subsidies.
第二篇
题材划分： 生物类
主要内容：某地区的大型动物的灭绝。第一段说针对某地区的magfouna，一些科学家起初认为是环境变化导致的灭绝，因为当时觉得动物很大，人类很少，仅仅用冷兵器就能影响到动物的灭绝，有些不大可能。第二段说记录表明4000年前也发生过大程度的环境变化，但是动物没有灭绝。另有证据表明某个时期一小部分的人们开始了在该地区的狩猎，杀动物为食，时间点恰好和灭绝的地点相吻合。这种巧合和该动物的灭绝是否真的相关联呢?第三段说一些科学家分析了magfouna的种类，随着猎人人口的增加而减少的趋势，另外一个科学家画出了一个地图正好佐证了结论：是人类影响了动物的数量。画地图的科学家的研究存在争议。第五段说有另外i科学家指出，不管有没有争议，这个结论在很多研究中证实是正确的，因为有其他的地区类似人类活动导致了灭绝的例子。
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TPO15-Mass Extinctions
相关知识背景：
An extinction event (also known as a mass extinction or biotic crisis) is a widespread and rapid decrease in the amount of life on Earth. Such an event is identified by a sharp change in the diversity and abundance of multicellular organisms. It occurs when the rate of extinction increases with respect to the rate of speciation. Because the majority of diversity and biomass on Earth is microbial, and thus difficult to measure, recorded extinction events affect the easily observed, biologically complex component of the biosphere rather than the total diversity and abundance of life. Extinction occurs at an uneven rate. Based on the fossil record, the background rate of extinctions on Earth is about two to five taxonomic families of marine animals every million years. Marine fossils are mostly used to measure extinction rates because of their superior fossil record and stratigraphic range compared to land organisms.
The Great Oxygenation Event was probably the first major extinction event. Since the Cambrian explosion five further major mass extinctions have significantly exceeded the background extinction rate. The most recent and debatably best-known, the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, which occurred approximately 66 million years ago (Ma), was a large-scale mass extinction of animal and plant species in a geologically short period of time. In addition to the five major mass extinctions, there are numerous minor ones as well and the ongoing mass-extinction caused by human activity is sometimes called the sixth extinction. Mass extinctions seem to be a Phanerozoic phenomenon, with extinction rates low before large complex organisms arose.
Estimates of the number of major mass extinctions in the last 540 million years range from as few as five to more than twenty. These differences stem from the threshold chosen for describing an extinction event as "major", and the data chosen to measure past diversity.
第三篇
题材划分： 植物类
主要内容： 主要讲海藻，第一段说了海藻的种类有7000多种，因为囊括了mushroom，每年有超过1000种的海藻被发现，也有很多没被发现的就灭绝了，因为环境污染和人类的活动，然后第二段讲了fungi灭绝的原因，因为他们不像其他的植物有cover或者保护，所欲对于环境很敏感，然后就有利用这个特点，矿工把这种蘑菇种植在矿井下，这样如果一旦蘑菇出现问题，他们就知道是有有毒物质泄漏了，第三段说欧洲的海藻数量和种类消失的太快，某个森林的例子和数据支持该论述，美国的fungi缺乏数据支持，因为人们很少吃它，但是并不代表海藻不受影响，人们可以根据mushroom的记录来推测海藻的情况。
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TPO5- Minerals and Plants
相关知识背景：
Algae is an informal term for a large, diverse group of eukaryotes that are not necessarily closely related and are thus polyphyletic. Included organisms range from unicellular genera, such as Chlorella and the diatoms, to multicellular forms, such as the giant kelp, a large brown alga that may grow up to 50 meters in length. Most are aquatic and autotrophic and lack many of the distinct cell and tissue types, such as stomata, xylem and phloem, that are found in land plants. The largest and most complex marine algae are called seaweeds, while the most complex freshwater forms are the Charophyta, a division of green algae that includes, for example, Spirogyra and the stoneworts.
There is no generally accepted definition of algae. One definition is that algae "have chlorophyll as their primary photosynthetic pigment and lack a sterile covering of cells around their reproductive cells".Some authors exclude all prokaryotes and thus do not consider cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) as algae.
Algae constitute a polyphyletic group since they do not include a common ancestor, and although their plastids seem to have a single origin, from cyanobacteria, they were acquired in different ways. Green algae are examples of algae that have primary chloroplasts derived from endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. Diatoms and brown algae are examples of algae with secondary chloroplasts derived from an endosymbiotic red alga. Algae exhibit a wide range of reproductive strategies, from simple asexual cell division to complex forms of sexual reproduction.
Algae lack the various structures that characterize land plants, such as the phyllids (leaf-like structures) of bryophytes, rhizoids in nonvascular plants, and the roots, leaves, and other organs that are found in tracheophytes (vascular plants). Most are phototrophic, although some groups[which?] contain members that are mixotrophic, deriving energy both from photosynthesis and uptake of organic carbon either by osmotrophy, myzotrophy, or phagotrophy. Some unicellular species of green algae, many golden algae, euglenids, dinoflagellates and other algae have become heterotrophs (also called colorless or apochlorotic algae), sometimes parasitic, relying entirely on external energy sources and have limited or no photosynthetic apparatus. Some other heterotrophic organisms, like the apicomplexans, are also derived from cells whose ancestors possessed plastids, but are not traditionally considered as algae. Algae have photosynthetic machinery ultimately derived from cyanobacteria that produce oxygen as a by-product of photosynthesis, unlike other photosynthetic bacteria such as purple and green sulfur bacteria. Fossilized filamentous algae from the Vindhya basin have been dated back to 1.6 to 1.7 billion years ago.
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